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Contents Paarai
In the list of (2 Samuel 23:35) "Paarai the Arbite" is one of
David's men. In (1 Chronicles 11:37) he is Naarai the son of
Ezbai." (B.C. 1015.)
Padan
(field). Padan-aram. (Genesis 48:7)
Padanaram
By this name, which signifies the table-land of Aram, i.e.
Syriac, the Hebrews designated the tract of country which they
otherwise called the Aram-naharaim, "Aram of the two of
rivers," the Greek Mesopotamia, (Genesis 24:10) and "the field
(Authorized Version,'country') of Syria." (Hosea 12:13) The
term was perhaps more especially applied to that portion which
bordered on the Euphrates, to distinguish if from the
mountainous districts in the north and northeast of
Mesopotamia. It is elsewhere called [936]Padan simply. (Genesis
48:7) Abraham obtained a wife for Isaac from Padan-aram.
(Genesis 25:20) Jacob's wives were also from Padan-aram,
(Genesis 28:2,5,6,7; 31:1-8; 33:18)
Padon
(deliverance) the ancestor of a family of Nethinim who returned
with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:41; Nehemiah 7:47) (B.C. before 529.)
Pagiel
(God allots) the son of Ocran and chief of the tribe of Asher
at the time of the exodus. (Numbers 1:13; 2:27; 7:72,77; 10:26)
(B.C. 1491.)
Pahathmoab
(governor of Moab), head of one of the chief houses of the
tribe of Judah. Of the individual or the occasion of his
receiving so singular a name nothing is known certainty but as
we read in (1 Chronicles 4:22) of a family of Shilonites, of
the tribe of Judah, who in very early times "had dominion in
Moab," it may be conjectured that this was the origin of the
name.
Pai
(blessing). [[937]Pau]
Paial
(judge), the son of Uzai who assisted in restoring the walls of
Jerusalem in the time of Nehemiah, (Nehemiah 3:25) (B.C. 446.)
Paint
(as a cosmetic). The use of cosmetic dyes has prevailed in all
ages in eastern countries. We have abundant evidence of the
practice of painting the eyes both in ancient Egypt and in
Assyria; and in modern times no usage is more general. It does
not appear, however, to have been by any means universal among
the Hebrews. The notices of it are few; and in each instance it
seems to have been used as a meretricious art, unworthy of a
woman of high character. The Bible gives no indication of the
substance out of which the dye was formed. The old versions
agree in pronouncing the dye to have been produced from
antimony. Antimony is still used for the purpose in Arabia and
in Persia, but in Egypt the kohl is a root produced by burning
either a kind of frankincense or the shells of almonds. The
dye-stuff was moistened with oil and kept in a small jar.
Whether the custom of staining the hands and feet, particularly
the nails, now so prevalent in the past, was known to the
Hebrews is doubtful. Painting as an art was not cultivated by
the Hebrews, but they decorated their buildings with paint.
Palace
Palace in the Bible, in the singular and plural, is the
rendering of several words of diverse meaning. (1 Chronicles
29:1; Ezra 4:14; Amos 4:3) etc. It often designates the royal
residence, and usually suggests a fortress or battlemented
house. The word occasionally included the whole city as in
(Esther 9:12) and again, as in (1 Kings 16:18) it is restricted
to a part of the royal apartments. It is applied, as in (1
Chronicles 29:1) to the temple in Jerusalem. The site of the
palace of Solomon was almost certainly in the city itself on
the brow opposite to the temple, and overlooking it and the
whole city of David. It is impossible, of course, to be at all
certain what was either the form or the exact disposition of
such a palace; but, as we have the dimensions of the three
principal buildings given in the book of Kings and confirmed by
Josephus, we may, by taking these as a scale, ascertain pretty
nearly that the building covered somewhere about 150,000 or
160,000 square feet. Whether it was a square of 400 feet each
way, or an oblong of about 550 feet by 300, must always be more
or less a matter of conjecture. The principal building situated
within the palace was, as in all eastern palaces, the great
hall of state and audience, called "the house of the forest of
Lebanon," apparently from the four rows of cedar pillars by
which it was supported. It was 100 cubits (175 feet) long, 50
(88 feet) wide, and 30 (52 feet) high. Next in importance was
the hall or "porch of judgment," a quadrangular building
supported by columns, as we learn front Josephus, which
apparently stood on the other side of the great court, opposite
the house of the forest of Lebanon. The third edifice is merely
called a "porch of pillars." Its dimensions were 50 by 30
cubits. Its use cannot be considered as doubtful, as it was an
indispensable adjunct to an eastern palace. It was the ordinary
place of business of the palace, and the reception-room when
the king received ordinary visitors, and sat, except on great
state occasions, to transact the business of the kingdom.
Behind this, we are told, was the inner court, adorned with
gardens and fountains, and surrounded by cloisters for shade;
and there were other courts for the residence of the attendants
and guards, and for the women of the harem. Apart from this
palace, but attached, as Josephus tells us, to the hall of
judgment, was the palace of Pharaoh's daughter-too proud and
important a personage to be grouped with the ladies of the
harem, and requiring a residence of her own. The recent
discoveries at Nineveh have enabled us to understand many of
the architectural details of this palace, which before they
were made were nearly wholly inexplicable. Solomon constructed
an ascent from his own house to the temple, "the house of
Jehovah," (1 Kings 10:5) which was a subterranean passage 250
feet long by 42 feet wide, of which the remains may still be
traced.
Palestina And Palestine
(land of strangers). These two forms occur in the Authorized
Version but four times in all, always in poetical passages; the
first in (Exodus 15:14) and Isai 14:29 The second (Joel 3:4) In
each case the Hebrew is Pelesheth, a word found, besides the
above, only in (Psalms 60:8; 83:7; 87:4) and Psal 108:9 In all
which our translators have rendered it by "Philistia" or
"Philistines." Palestine in the Authorized Version really means
nothing but Philistia. The original Hebrew word Pelesheth to
the Hebrews signified merely the long and broad strip of
maritime plain inhabited by their encroaching neighbors; nor
does it appear that at first it signified more to the Greeks.
As lying next the sea, and as being also the high road from
Egypt to Phoenicia and the richer regions no of it, the
Philistine plain became sooner known to the western world than
the country farther inland, and was called by them Syria
Palestina-Philistine Syria. From thence it was gradually
extended to the country farther inland, till in the Roman and
later Greek authors, both heathen sad Christian, it became the
usual appellation for the whole country of the Jews, both west
and east of Jordan. The word is now so commonly employed in our
more familiar language to destinate the whole country of Israel
that although biblically a misnomer, it has been chosen here as
the most convenient heading under which to give a general
description of THE HOLY LAND, embracing those points which have
not been treated under the separate headings of cities or
tribes. This description will most conveniently divide itself
Into three sections:-- I. The Names applied to the country of
Israel in the Bible and elsewhere. II. The Land; its situation,
aspect, climb, physical characteristics in connection with its
history, its structure, botany and natural history. III. The
History of the country is so fully given under its various
headings throughout the work that it is unnecessary to
recapitulate it here. I. [THE [938]Names].--Palestine, then, is
designated in the Bible by more than one name.
+ During the patriarchal period, the conquest and the age of
the Judges and also where those early periods are referred to
in the later literature (as) (Psalms 105:11) it is spoken of
as "Canaan," or more frequently "the land of Canaan," meaning
thereby the country west of the Jordan, as opposed to "the
land of Gilead." on the east.
+ During the monarchy the name usually, though not frequently,
employed is "land of Israel." (1 Samuel 13:19)
+ Between the captivity and the time of our Lord the name
"Judea" had extended itself from the southern portion to the
whole of the country, and even that beyond the Jordan.
(Matthew 19:1; Mark 10:1)
+ The Roman division of the country hardly coincided with the
biblical one, and it does not appear that the Romans had any
distinct name for that which we understand by Palestine.
+ Soon after the Christian era we find the name Palestina in
possession of the country.
+ The name most frequently used throughout the middle ages, and
down to our own time, is Terra Sancta--the Holy Land. II. THE
LAND.-The holy land is not in size or physical
characteristics proportioned to its moral and historical
position as the theatre of the most momentous events in the
world's history. It is but a strip of country about the size
of Wales, less than 140 miles in length and barely 40 in
average breadth, on the very frontier of the East, hemmed in
between the Mediterranean Sea on the one hand and the
enormous trench of the Jordan valley on the other, by which
it is effectually cut off from the mainland of Asia behind
it. On the north it is shut in by the high ranges of Lebanon
and Anti-Lebanon, and by the chasm of the Litany. On the
south it is no less enclosed by the arid and inhospitable
deserts of the upper pert of the peninsula of Sinai.
+ Its position.--Its position on the map of the world--as the
world was when the holy land first made its appearance in
history--is a remarkable one. (a) It was on the very
outpost-- an the extremist western edge of the East. On the
shore of the Mediterranean it stands, as if it had advanced
as far as possible toward the west, separated therefrom by
that which, when the time arrived proved to be no barrier,
but the readiest medium of communication-the wide waters of
the "great sea." Thus it was open to all the gradual
influences of the rising communities of the West, while it
was saved from the retrogression and decrepitude which have
ultimately been the doom of all purely eastern states whose
connections were limited to the East only. (b) There was,
however, one channel, and but one, by which it could reach
and be reached by the great Oriental empires. The rivals road
by which the two great rivals of the ancient world could
approach one another--by which alone Egypt could get to
Assyria and Assyria to lay along the broad hat strip of coast
which formed the maritime portion of the holy land, and
thence by the plain of the Lebanon to the Euphrates. (c)
After this the holy land became (like the Netherlands in
Europe) the convenient arena on which in successive ages the
hostile powers who contended for the empire of the East
fought their battles.
+ Physical features.--Palestine is essentially a mountainous
country. Not that if contains independent mountain chains, as
in Greece for example but that every part of the highland is
in greater or less undulation. But it is not only a
mountainous country. The mass of hills which occupies the
centre of the country is bordered or framed on both sides,
east and west, by a broad belt of lowland, sunk deep below
its own level. The slopes or cliffs which form, as if it
were, the retaining walls of this depression are furrowed and
cleft by the torrent beds which discharge the waters of the
hills and form the means of communication between the upper
and lower level. On the west this lowland interposes between
the mountains and the sea, and is the plain of Philistia and
of Sharon. On the east it is the broad bottom of the Jordan
valley, deep down in which rushed the one river of Palestine
to its grave in, the Dead Sea. Such is the first general
impression of the physiognomy of the land. It is a
physiognomy compounded of the three main features already
named--the plains the highland hills, and the torrent beds
features which are marked in the words of its earliest
describers, (Numbers 13:29; Joshua 11:16; 12:8) and which
must be comprehended by every one who wishes to understand
the country and the intimate connection existing between its
structure and its history. About halfway up the coast the
maritime plain is suddenly interrupted by a long ridge thrown
out from the central mass, rising considerably shove the
general level and terminating in a bold promontory on the
very edge of the Mediterranean. This ridge is Mount Carmel.
On its upper side the plain, as if to compensate for its
temporary displacement, invades the centre of the country,
and forms an undulating hollow right across it from the
Mediterranean to the Jordan valley. This central lowland,
which divides with its broad depression the mountains of
Ephraim from the mountains of Galilee is the plain of
Esdraelon or Jezreel the great battle-field of Palestine.
North of Carmel the lowland resumes its position by the
seaside till it is again interrupted and finally put an end
to by the northern mountains, which push their way out of the
sea, ending in the white promontory of the Ras Nakhura .
Above this is the ancient Phoenicia. The country thus roughly
portrayed is to all intents and purposes the whole land of
israel. The northern portion is Galilee; the centre, Samaria;
the south, Judea. This is the land of Canaan which was
bestowed on Abraham,--the covenanted home of his descendants.
The highland district, surrounded and intersected by its
broad lowland plains, preserves from north to south a
remarkably even and horizontal profile. Its average height
may betaken as 1600 to 1800 feet above the Mediterranean. It
can hardly be denominated a plateau; yet so evenly is the
general level preserved and so thickly do the hills stand
behind and between one another, that, when seen from the
coast or the western part of the maritime plain, it has quite
the appearance of a wall. This general monotony of profile is
however, relieved at intervals by certain centers of
elevation. Between these elevated points runs the watershed
of the country, sending off on either hand--to the Jordan
valley on the east and the Mediterranean on the west--the
long, tortuous arms of ifs many torrent beds. The valleys on
the two sides of the watershed differ considerably in
character. Those on the east are extremely steep and rugged
the western valleys are more gradual in their slope.
+ Fertility .--When the highlands of the country are more
closely examined, a considerable difference will be found to
exist in the natural condition and appearance of their
different portions. The south, as being nearer the arid
desert and farther removed from the drainage of the
mountains, is drier and less productive than the north. The
tract below Hebron, which forms the link between the hills of
Judah and the desert, was known to the ancient Hebrews by a
term originally derived from its dryness--Negeb . This was
the south country. As the traveller advances north of this
tract there is an improvement; but perhaps no country equally
cultivated is more monotonous, bare or uninviting in its
aspect than a great part of the highlands of Judah and
Benjamin during the larger portion of the year. The spring
covers even those bald gray rocks with verdure and color, and
fills the ravines with torrents of rushing water; but in
summer and autumn the look of the country from Hebron up to
Bethel is very dreary and desolate. At Jerusalem this reaches
its climax. To the west and northwest of the highlands, where
the sea-breezes are felt, there is considerably more
vegetation, Hitherto we have spoken of the central and
northern portions of Judea. Its eastern portion--a tract some
nine or ten miles in width by about thirty-five in length,
which intervenes between the centre and the abrupt descent to
the Dead Sea--is far more wild and desolate, and that not for
a portion of the year only, but throughout it. This must have
been always what it is now--an uninhabited desert, because
uninhabitable. No descriptive sketch of this part of the
country can be complete which does not allude to the caverns,
characteristic of all limestone districts, but here existing
in astonishing numbers. Every hill and ravine is pierced with
them, some very large and of curious formation--perhaps
partly natural, partly artificial--others mere grottos. Many
of them are connected with most important and interesting
events of the ancient history of the country. Especially is
this true of the district now under consideration. Machpelah,
Makkedah, Adullam En-gedi, names inseparably connected with
the lives, adventures and deaths of Abraham, Joshua, David
and other Old-Testament worthies, are all within the small
circle of the territory of Judea. The bareness and dryness
which prevail more or less in Judea are owing partly to the
absence of wood, partly to its proximity to the desert, sad
partly to a scarcity of water arising from its distance from
the Lebanon. But to this discouraging aspect there are some
important exceptions. The valley of Urtas, south of Bethlehem
contains springs which in abundance and excellence rival even
those of Nablus the huge "Pools of Solomon" are enough to
supply a district for many miles round them; and the
cultivation now going on in that Neighborhood shows whet
might be done with a soil which required only irrigation and
a moderate amount of labor to evoke a boundless produce. It
is obvious that in the ancient days of the nation, when Judah
and Benjamin possessed the teeming population indicated in
the Bible, the condition and aspect of the country must have
been very different. Of this there are not wanting sure
evidences. There is no country in which the ruined towns bear
so large a proportion to those still existing. Hardly a
hill-top of the many within sight that is not covered with
vestiges of some fortress or city. But, besides this, forests
appear to have stood in many parts of Judea until the
repeated invasions and sieges caused their fall; and all this
vegetation must have reacted on the moisture of the climate,
and, by preserving the water in many a ravine and natural
reservoir where now it is rapidly dried by the fierce sun of
the early summer, must have influenced materially the look
and the resources of the country. Advancing northward from
Judea, the country (Samaria) becomes gradually more open and
pleasant. Plains of good soil occur between the hills, at
first small but afterward comparatively large. The hills
assume here a more varied aspect than in the southern
districts, springs are more abundant and more permanent until
at last, when the district of Jebel Nablus is reached--the
ancient Mount Ephraim-the traveller encounters an atmosphere
and an amount of vegetation and water which are greatly
superior to anything he has met with in Judea and even
sufficient to recall much of the scenery of the West. Perhaps
the springs are the only objects which In themselves, and
apart from their associations, really strike an English
traveller with astonishment and admiration. Such glorious
fountains as those of Ain-jalud or the Ras el-Mukatta--where
a great body of the dearest water wells silently but swiftly
out from deep blue recesses worn in the foot of a low cliff
of limestone rock and at once forms a considerable
stream--are rarely to be met with out of irregular, rocky,
mountainous countries, and being such unusual sights can
hardly be looked on by the traveler without surprise and
emotion. The valleys which lead down from the upper level in
this district to the valley of the Jordan are less
precipitous than in Judea. The eastern district of the Jebel
Nablus contains some of the most fertile end valuable spots
in the holy land. Hardly less rich is the extensive region
which lies northwest of the city of Shechem (Nablus), between
it and Carmel, in which the mountains gradually break down
into the plain of Sharon. Put with all its richness and all
its advance on the southern part of the country there is a
strange dearth of natural wood about this central district.
It is this which makes the wooded sides of Carmel and the
park-like scenery of the adjacent slopes and plains so
remarkable. No sooner however, is the plain of Eadraelon
passed than a considerable improvement Is perceptible. The
low hills which spread down from the mountains of Galilee,
and form the barrier between the plains of Akka and
Esdraelon, are covered with timber, of moderate size it is
true, but of thick, vigorous growth, and pleasant to the eye.
Eastward of these hills rises the round mass of Tabor dark
with its copses of oak, and set on by contrast with the bare
slopes of Jebel ed-Duhy (the so called "Little Hermon") and
the white hills of Nazareth. A few words must be said in
general description of the maritime lowland, which intervenes
between the sea and the highlands. This region, only slightly
elevated above the level of the Mediterranean, extends
without interruption from el-Arish, south of Gaza, to Mount
Carmel. It naturally divides itself into two portions each of
about half its length; the lower one the wider the upper one
the narrower. The lower half is the plain of the
Philistines-Philistia, or, as the Hebrews called it, the
Shefelah or Lowland. The upper half is the Sharon or Saron of
the Old and New Testaments. The Philistine plain is on an
average 15 or 16 miles in width from the coast to the
beginning of the belt of hills which forms the gradual
approach to the high land of the mountains of Judah. The
larger towns, as Gaza and Ashdod, which stand near the shore,
are surrounded with huge groves of olive, sycamore and, as in
the days King David. (1 Chronicles 27:28) The whole plain
appears to consist of brown loamy soil, light but rich and
almost without a stone. It is now, as it was when the
Philistines possessed it, one enormous cornfield; an ocean of
wheat covers the wide expense between the hills and the sand
dunes of the seashore, without interruption of any kind--no
break or hedge, hardly even a single olive tree. Its
fertility is marvellous; for the prodigious crops which if
raises are produced, and probably have been produced almost
year by year for the last forty centuries, without any of the
appliances which we find necessary for success. The plain of
Sharon is much narrower then Philistia. It is about 10 miles
wide from the sea to the foot of the mountains, which are
here of a more abrupt character than those of Philistia, and
without the intermediate hilly region there occurring. The
one ancient port of the Jews, the "beautiful", city of Joppa,
occupied a position central between the Shefelah and Sharon.
Roads led from these various cities to each other to
Jerusalem, Neapolis and Sebaste in the interior, and to
Ptolemais and Gaza on the north and south. The commerce of
Damascus, and beyond Damascus, of Persia and India, passed
this way to Egypt, Rome and the infant colonies of the West;
and that traffic and the constant movement of troops backward
and forward must have made this plain, at the time of Christ,
one of the busiest and most populous regions of Syria.
+ The Jordan valley .--The chacteristics already described are
hardly peculiar to Palestine, but there is one feature, as
yet only alluded to, in which she stands alone. This feature
is the Jordan--the one river of the country. The river is
elsewhere described; [[939]Jordan] but it and the valley
through which it rushes down its extraordinary descent must
be here briefly characterized. This valley begins with the
river at its remotest springs of Hasbeiya, on the northwest
side of Hermon, and accompanies it to the lower end of the
Dead Sea, a length of about 1,50 miles. During the whole of
this distance its course is straight and its direction nearly
due north and south. The springs of Hasbeiya are 1700 feet
above the level of the Mediterranean and the northern end of
the Dead Sea is 1317 feet below it, so that between these two
points the valley falls with more or less regularity through
a height of more than 3000 feet. But though the river
disappears at this point, the valley still continues its
descent below the waters of the Dead Sea till it reaches a
further depth of 1308 feet. So that the bottom of this
extraordinary crevasse is actually more than 2600 feet below
the surface of the ocean. In width the valley varies. In its
upper and shallower portion, as between Banias and the lake
of Merom (Huleh), it is about five miles across. Between the
lake of Merom and the Sea or Galilee it contracts, and
becomes more of an ordinary ravine or glen. It is in its
third and lower portion that the valley assumes its more
definite and regular character. During the greater part of
this portion it is about seven miles wide from the one wall
to the other. The eastern mountains preserve their straight
line of direction, and their massive horizontal wall-like
aspect, during almost the whole distance. The western
mountains are more irregular in height, their slopes less
vertical. North of Jericho they recede in a kind of wide
amphitheatre, and the valley becomes twelve miles broad--a
breadth which it thenceforward retains to the southern
extremity of the Dead Sea. Buried as it is between such lofty
ranges, and shielded from every breeze, the climate of the
Jordan valley is extremely hot and relaxing. Its enervating
influence is shown by the inhabitants of Jericho. All the
irrigation necessary for the cultivation which formerly
existed is obtained front the torrents of the western
mountains. For all purposes to which a river ordinarily
applied the Jordan is useless. The Dead Sea, which is the
final receptacle of the Jordan, is described elsewhere.
[[940]Sea, The Salt, THE SALT.)
+ Climate .--"Probably there is no country in the world of the
same extent which has a greater variety of climate than
Palestine. On Mount Hermon, at its northern border there is
perpetual snow. From this we descend successively by the
peaks of Bashan and upper Galilee, where the oak and pine
flourish, to the hills of Judah and Samaria, where the vine
and fig tree are at home, to the plains of the seaboard where
the palm and banana produce their fruit down to the sultry
shores of the Sea, on which we find tropical heat and
tropical vegetation." McClintock and Strong . As in the time
of our Saviour (Luke 12:64) the rains come chiefly from the
south or southwest. They commence at the end of October or
beginning of November and continue with greater or less
constancy till the end of February or March. It is not a
heavy, continuous rain so much as a succession of severe
showers or storms, with intervening periods of fine, bright
weather. Between April and November there is, with the rarest
exceptions, an uninterrupted succession of fine weather and
skies without a cloud. Thus the year divides itself into two
and only two seasons--as indeed we see it constantly divided
in the Bible-" winter and summer" "cold and heat," "seed-time
and harvest."
+ Botany .--The botany of Syria and Palestine differs but
little from that of Asia Minor, which is one of the most rich
and varied on the globe. Among trees the oak is by far the
most prevalent. The trees of the genus Pistacia rank next to
the oak in abundance, and of these there are three species in
Syria. There is also the carob or locust tree (Ceratonia
siliqua), the pine, sycamore, poplar and walnut. Of planted
trees large shrubs the first in importance is the vine, which
is most abundantly cultivated all over the country, and
produces, as in the time of the Canaanites, enormous bunches
of grapes. This is especially the case in the southern
districts, those of Eshcol being still particularly famous.
Next to the vine, or even in some respects its superior in
importance, ranks the olive, which nowhere grows in greater
luxuriance and abundance than in Palestine, where the olive
orchards form a prominent feature throughout the landscape,
and have done so from time immemorial. The fig forms another
most important crop in Syria and Palestine. (Besides these
are the almond, pomegranate, orange, pear, banana, quince and
mulberry among fruit trees. Of vegetables there are many
varieties, as the egg plant, pumpkin, asparagus, lettuce,
melon and cucumber. Palestine is especially distinguished for
its wild flowers, of which there are more than five hundred
varieties. The geranium, pink, poppy, narcissus, honeysuckle,
oleander, jessamine, tulip and iris are abundant. The various
grains are also very largely cultivated.--ED.)
+ Zoology.--It will be sufficient in this article to give a
general survey of the fauna of Palestine, as the reader will
find more particular information in the several articles
which treat of the various animals under their respective
names. Jackals and foxes are common; the hyena and wolf are
also occasionally observed; the lion is no longer a resident
in Palestine or Syria. A species of squirrel the which the
term orkidaun "the leaper," has been noticed on the lower and
middle parts of Lebanon. Two kinds of hare, rats and mice,
which are said to abound, the jerboa, the porcupine, the
short-tailed field-mouse, may be considered as the
representatives of the Rodentia . Of the Pachydermata the
wild boar, which is frequently met with on Taber and Little
Hermon, appears to be the only living wild example. There
does not appear to be at present any wild ox in Palestine. Of
domestic animals we need only mention the Arabian or
one-humped camel, the ass, the mule and the horse, all of
which are in general use. The buffalo (Bubalus buffalo) is
common. The ox of the country is small and unsightly in the
neighborhood of Jerusalem, but in the richer pastures the
cattle, though small, are not unsightly The common sheep of
Palestine is the broadtail, with its varieties. Goats are
extremely common everywhere. Palestine abounds in numerous
kinds of birds. Vultures, eagles, falcons, kites, owls of
different kinds represent the Raptorial order. In the south
of Palestine especially, reptiles of various kinds abound. It
has been remarked that in its physical character Palestine
presents on a small scale an epitome of the natural features
of all regions, mountainous and desert, northern and
tropical, maritime and inland, pastoral, arable and volcanic.
+ Antiquities .--In the preceding description allusion has been
made to many of the characteristic features of the holy land;
but it is impossible to close this account without mentioning
a defect which is even more characteristic--its luck of
monuments and personal relies of the nation which possessed
it for so many centuries and gave it its claim to our
veneration and affection. When compared with other nations of
equal antiquity--Egypt, Greece Assyria--the contrast is truly
remarkable. In Egypt and Greece, and also in Assyria, as far
as our knowledge at present extends, we find a series of
buildings reaching down from the most remote and mysterious
antiquity, a chain of which hardly a link is wanting, and
which records the progress of the people in civilization art
and religion as certainly as the buildings of the medieval
architects do that of the various nations of modern Europe.
But in Palestine it is not too much to say that there does
not exist a single edifice or part of an edifice of which we
call be sure that it is of a date anterior to the Christian
era. And as with the buildings, so with other memorials, With
one exception, the museums of Europe do not possess a single
piece of pottery or metal work, a single weapon or household
utensil, an ornament or a piece of armor of Israelite make,
which can give us the least conception of the manners or
outward appliances of the nation before the date of the
destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. The coins form the single
exception. M. Renan has named two circumstances which must
have had a great effect in suppressing art or architecture
amongst the ancient Israelites, while their very existence
proves that the people had no genius in that direction. These
are (1) the prohibition of sculptured representations of
living creatures, and (2) the command not to build a temple
anywhere but at Jerusalem.
Pallu
(distinguished), the second son of Reuben, father of Eliab,
(Isaiah 6:14; Numbers 26:5,8; 1 Chronicles 5:3) and founder of
the family of Palluites.
Palluites
(descendants of Pullu), The. (Numbers 26:5)
Palm Tree
(Heb. tamar). Under this generic term many species are
botanically included; but we have here only to do with the date
palm, the Phoenix dactylifera of Linnaeus. While this tree was
abundant generally in the Levant, it was regarded by the
ancients as peculiarly characteristic of Palestine and the
neighboring regions, though now it is rare. ("The palm tree
frequently attains a height of eighty feet, but more commonly
forty to fifty. It begins to bear fruit after it has been
planted six or eight years, and continues to be productive for
a century. Its trunk is straight, tall and unbroken,
terminating in a crown of emerald-green plumes, like a diadem
of gigantic ostrich-feathers; these leaves are frequently
twenty feet in length, droop slightly at the ends, and whisper
musically in the breeze. The palm is, in truth, a beautiful and
most useful tree. Its fruit is the daily food of millions; its
sap furnishes an agreeable wine; the fibres of the base of its
leaves are woven into ropes and rigging; its tall stem supplies
a valuable timber; its leaves are manufactured into brushes,
mats, bags, couches and baskets. This one tree supplies almost
all the wants of the Arab or Egyptian."--Bible Plants.) Many
places are mentioned in the Bible as having connection with
palm trees; Elim, where grew three score and ten palm trees,
(Exodus 15:27) and Elath. (2:8) Jericho was the city of "palm
trees." (31:3) Hazezon-tamar, "the felling of the palm tree,"
is clear in its derivation. There is also Tamar, "the palm."
(Ezekiel 47:19) Bethany means the "house of dates." The word
Phoenicia, which occurs twice in the New Testament-- (Acts
11:19; 15:3)--is in all probability derived from the Greek word
for a palm. The, striking appearance of the tree, its
uprightness and beauty, would naturally suggest the giving of
Its name occasionally to women. (Genesis 38:6; 2 Samuel 13:1;
14:27) There is in the Psalms, (Psalms 92:12) the familiar
comparison, "The righteous shall flourish like the palm tree."
which suggests a world of illustration whether respect be had
to the orderly and regular aspect of the tree, its
fruitfulness, the perpetual greenness of its foliage, or the
height at which the foliage grows, as far as possible from
earth and as near as possible to heaven. Perhaps no point is
more worthy of mention, we wish to pursue the comparison, than
the elasticity of the fibre of the palm and its determined
growth upward even when loaded with weights. The passage in
(Revelation 7:9) where the glorified of all nations are
described as "clothed with white robes and palms in their
hands," might seem to us a purely classical image; but palm
branches were used by the Jews in token of victory and peace.
(To these points of comparison may be added, its principle of
growth: it is an endogen, and grows from within; its
usefulness; the Syrians enumerating 360 different uses to which
it may be put; and the statement that it bears its best fruit
in old age.--ED.) It is curious that this tree, once so
abundant in Judea, is now comparatively rare, except in the
Philistine plain and in the old Phoenicia about Beyrout .
Palmerworm
(Heb. gazam) occurs (Joel 1:4; 2:25; Amos 4:9) It is maintained
by many that gazam denotes some species of locust. but it is
more probably a caterpillar.
Palsy
(contracted from paralysis). The loss of sensation or the power
of motion, or both, in any part of the body. The infirmities
included under this name in the New Testament were various:--
+ The paralytic shock affecting the whole body, or apoplexy.
+ That affecting only one side.
+ Affecting the whole system below the neck.
+ Catalepsy, caused by the contraction of the muscles in the
whole or a part of the body. This was very dangerous and
often fatal. The part affected remains immovable and
diminishes in size and dries up. A hand thus affected was
called "a withered hand." (Matthew 12:10-13)
+ Cramp. This was a most dreadful disease caused by the chills
of the nights. The limbs remain immovably fixed in the same
position as when seized as it, and the person seems like one
suffering torture. It is frequently followed in a few days by
death. Several paralytics were cured by Jesus. (Matthew 4:24;
8:13) etc.
Palti
(whom Jehovah delivers), the Benjamite spy, son of Raphu.
(Numbers 13:9) (B.C.1490.)
Paltiel
(whom God delivers), the son of Azzan and prince of the tribe
of Issachar. (Numbers 34:26) He was one of the twelve appointed
to divide the land of Canaan among the tribes west of Jordan.
(B.C. 1450.)
Pamphylia
(of every tribe), one of the coast-regions in the south of Asia
Minor, having Cilicia on the east and Lycia on the west. In St.
Paul's time it was not only a regular province, but the emperor
Claudius had united Lycia with it, and probably also a good
part of Pisidia. It was in Pamphylia that St. Paul first
entered Asia Minor, after preaching the gospel in Cyprus. He
and Barnabas sailed up the river Cestrus to Perga. (Acts 13:13)
The two missionaries finally left Pamphylia by its chief
seaport Attalia. Many years afterward St. Paul sailed near the
coast. (Acts 27:5)
Pan
Of the six words so rendered in the Authorized Version, two
seem to imply a shallow pan or plate, such as is used by the
Bedouine and Syrians for baking or dressing rapidly their cakes
of meal, such as were used in legal oblations; the others, a
deeper vessel or caldron for boiling meat, placed during the
process on three stones.
Pannag
(sweet), an article of commerce exported from Palestine to
Tyre, (Ezekiel 27:17) the nature of which is a pure matter of
conjecture, as the term occurs nowhere else. A comparison of
the passage in Ezekiel with (Genesis 43:11) leads to the
supposition that pannag represents some of the spices grown in
Palestine.
Paper
[[941]Writing]
Paphos
(boiling, or hot), a town at the west end of Cyprus, connected
by a react with Salamis at the east end. It was founded B.C.
1184 (during the period of the judges in Israel). Paul and
Barnabas travelled, on their first missionary expedition,
"through the isle" from the latter place to the former, (Acts
13:6) The great characteristic of Paphos was the worship of
Aphrodite or Venus, who was fabled to have here risen from the
sea. Her temple, however, was at "Old Paphos" now called Kuklia
. The harbor and the chief town were at "New Paphos," ten miles
to the northwest. The place is still called Baffa .
Parable
(The word parable is in Greek parable (parabole) which
signifies placing beside or together, a comparison, a parable
is therefore literally a placing beside, a comparison, a
similitude, an illustration of one subject by
another.--McClintock and Strong. As used in the New Testament
it had a very wide application, being applied sometimes to the
shortest proverbs, (1 Samuel 10:12; 24:13; 2 Chronicles 7:20)
sometimes to dark prophetic utterances, (Numbers 23:7,18; 24:3;
Ezekiel 20:49) sometimes to enigmatic maxims, (Psalms 78:2;
Proverbs 1:6) or metaphors expanded into a narrative. (Ezekiel
12:22) In the New Testament itself the word is used with a like
latitude in (Matthew 24:32; Luke 4:23; Hebrews 9:9) It was
often used in a more restricted sense to denote a short
narrative under which some important truth is veiled. Of this
sort were the parables of Christ. The parable differs from the
fable (1) in excluding brute and inanimate creatures passing
out of the laws of their nature and speaking or acting like
men; (2) in its higher ethical significance. It differs from
the allegory in that the latter, with its direct
personification of ideas or attributes, and the names which
designate them, involves really no comparison. The virtues and
vices of mankind appear as in a drama, in their own character
and costume. The allegory is self-interpreting; the parable
demands attention, insight, sometimes an actual explanation. It
differs from a proverb in that it must include a similitude of
some kind, while the proverb may assert, without a similitude,
some wide generalization of experience.--ED.) For some months
Jesus taught in the synagogues and on the seashore of Galilee
as he had before taught in Jerusalem, and as yet without a
parable. But then there came a change. The direct teaching was
met with scorn unbelief hardness, and he seemed for a time to
abandon it for that which took the form of parables. The worth
of parables as instruments of teaching lies in their being at
once a test of character and in their presenting each form of
character with that which, as a penalty or blessing, is adapted
to it. They withdraw the light from those who love darkness.
They protect the truth which they enshrine from the mockery of
the scoffer. They leave something even with the careless which
may be interpreted and understood afterward. They reveal on the
other hand, the seekers after truth. These ask the meaning of
the parable, and will not rest until the teacher has explained
it. In this way the parable did work, found out the fit hearers
and led them on. In most of the parables it is possible to
trace something like an order.
+ There is a group which have for their subject the laws of the
divine kingdom. Under this head we have the sower, (Matthew
13:1; Mark 4:1; Luke 8:1)... the wheat and the tares (Matthew
13:1) ... etc.
+ When the next parables meet us they are of a different type
and occupy a different position. They are drawn from the life
of men rather than from the world of nature. They are such as
these--the two debtors, (Luke 7:1) ... the merciless servant,
(Matthew 18:1) ... the good Samaritan, (Luke 10:1) ... etc.
+ Toward the close of our Lord's ministry the parables are
again theocratic but the phase of the divine kingdom on which
they chiefly dwell is that of its final consummation. In
interpreting parables note-- (1) The analogies must be real,
not arbitrary; (2) The parables are to be considered as parts
of a whole, and the interpretation of one is not to override
or encroach upon the lessons taught by others; (3) The direct
teaching of Christ presents the standard to which all our
interpretations are to be referred, and by which they are to
be measured.
Paradise
This is a word of Persian origin, and is used in the Septuagint
as the translation of Eden. It means "an orchard of pleasure
and fruits," a "garden" or "pleasure ground," something like an
English park. It is applied figuratively to the celestial
dwelling of the righteous, in allusion to the garden of Eden.
(2 Corinthians 12:4; Revelation 2:7) It has thus come into
familiar use to denote both that garden and the heaven of the
just.
Parah
(heifer-town) one of the cities in the territory allotted to
Benjamin, named only in the lists of the conquest. (Joshua
18:23)
Paran, Elparan
(peace of caverns), a desert or wilderness, bounded on the
north by Palestine, on the east by the valley of Arabah, on the
south by the desert of Sinai, and on the west by the wilderness
of Etham, which separated it from the Gulf of Suez and Egypt.
The first notice of Paran is in connection with the invasion of
the confederate kings. (Genesis 14:6) The detailed itinerary of
the children of Israel in (Numbers 33:1) ... does not mention
Paran because it was the name of a wide region; but the many
stations in Paran are recorded, chs. 17-36. and probably all
the eighteen stations were mentioned between Hazeroth and
Kadesh were in Paran. Through this very wide wilderness, from
pasture to pasture as do modern Arab tribes, the Israelites
wandered in irregular lines of march. This region through which
the Israelites journeyed so long is now called by the name it
has borne for ages--Bedu et-Tih, "the wilderness of wandering."
("Bible Geography," Whitney.) "Mount" Paran occurs only in two
poetic passages, (33:2); Habb 3:3 It probably denotes the
northwestern member of the Sinaitic mountain group which lies
adjacent to the Wady Teiran . (It is probably the ridge or
series of ridges lying on the northeastern part of the desert
of Paran, not far from Kadesh.--ED.)
Parbar
(open apartment), a word occurring in Hebrew and Authorized
Version only in (1 Chronicles 26:18) It would seem that Parbar
was some place on the west side of the temple enclosure,
probably the suburb mentioned by Josephus as lying in the deep
valley which separated the west wall of the temple from the
city opposite it.
Parchment
[[942]Writing]
Parlor
a word in English usage meaning the common room of the family,
and hence probably in Authorized Version denoting the king's
audience-chamber, so used in reference to Eglon. (Judges
3:20-25)
Parmashta
(superior), one of the ten sons of Haman slain by the Jews in
Shushan. (Esther 9:9) (B.C. 473.)
Parmenas
(abiding), one of the seven deacons, "men of honest report,
full of the Holy Ghost and wisdom." (Acts 8:5) There is a
tradition that he suffered martyrdom at Philippi in the reign
of Trajan.
Parnaeh
(delicate), father or ancestor of Elizaphan prince of the tribe
of Zebulun. (Numbers 34:25) (B.C. before 1452.)
Parshandatha
(given by prayer), the eldest of Haman's ten sons who were
slain by the Jews in Shushan. (Esther 9:7) (B.C. 473.)
Parthians
This name occurs only in (Acts 2:9) where it designates Jews
settled in Parthia. Parthia proper was the region stretching
along the southern flank of the mountains which separate the
great Persian desert from the desert of Kharesm. It lay south
of Hyrcania, east of Media and north of Sagartia. The ancient
Parthians are called a "Scythic" race, and probably belonged to
the great Turanian family. After being subject in succession to
the Persians and the Seleucidae, they revolted in B.C. 256. and
under Arsaces succeeded in establishing their independence.
Parthia, in the mind of the writer of the Acts, would designate
this empire, which extended from India to the Tigris and from
the Chorasmian desert to the shores of the Southern Ocean;
hence the prominent position of the name Parthians in the list
of those prevent at Pentecost. Parthia was a power almost
rivalling Rome--the only existing power which had tried its
strength against Rome and not been worsted in the encounter.
The Parthian dominion lasted for nearly five centuries,
commencing in the third century before and terminating in the
third century after our era. The Parthians spoke the Persian
language.
Partridge
(Heb. kore) occurs only (1 Samuel 26:20) and Jere 17:11 The
"hunting this bird upon the mountains," (1 Samuel 26:20)
entirely agrees with the habits of two well-known species of
partridge, viz. Caccabis saxatilis, the Greek partridge (which
is the commonest partridge of the holy land), and Ammoperdix
heyii . Our common partridge, Perdix cinerea, does not occur in
Palestine. (The Greek partridge somewhat resembles our
red-legged partridge in plumage, but is much larger. In every
part of the hill country it abounds, and its ringing call-note
in early morning echoes from cliff to cliff alike amid the
barrenness of the hills of Judea and in the glens of the forest
of Carmel. Tristram's Nat. Hist. of Bible . The flesh of the
partridge and the eggs are highly esteemed as food, and the
search for the eggs at the proper time of the year is made a
regular business.-ED.)
Paruah
(flourishing), the father of Jehoshaphat, Solomon's
commissariat officer in Issachar. (1 Kings 4:17) (B.C. about
1017.)
Parvaim
(Oriental regions), the name of an unknown place or country
whence the gold was procured for the decoration of Solomon's
temple. (2 Chronicles 3:6) We may notice the conjecture that it
is derived from the Sanscrit purva, "eastern," and is a general
term for the east.
Pasach
(cut off), son of Japhlet, of the tribe of Asher. (1 Chronicles
7:33)
Pasdammim
(boundary of blood). [EPHES-DAMMIM]
Paseah
(lame).
+ Son of Eshton, in an obscure fragment of the genealogies of
Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:12)
+ The "sons of Paseah" were among the Nethinim who returned
with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:49)
Pashur
(freedom).
+ One of the families of priests of the chief house of
Malchijah. (1 Chronicles 9:12; 24:9; Nehemiah 11:12; Jeremiah
21:1; 38:1) In the time of Nehemiah this family appears to
have become a chief house, and its head the head of a course.
(Ezra 2:38; Nehemiah 7:41; 10:3) The individual from whom the
family was named was probably Pushur the son of Malchiah, who
in the reign of Zedekiah was one of the chief princes of the
court. (Jeremiah 38:1) (B.C. 607.) He was sent, with others,
by Zedekiah to Jeremiah at the time when Nebuchudnezzar was
preparing his attack upon Jerusalem. (Jeremiah 21:1) ...
Again somewhat later Pashur joined with several other chief
men in petitioning the king that Jeremiah might be put to
death as a traitor. (Jeremiah 38:4)
+ Another person of this name, also a priest, and "chief
governor of the house of the Lord," is mentioned in (Jeremiah
20:1) He is described as "the son of Immer." (1 Chronicles
24:14) probably the same as Amariah. (Nehemiah 10:3; 12:2)
etc. In the reign of Jehoiakim he showed himself as hostile
to Jeremiah as his namesake the son of Malchiah did
afterward, and put him in the stocks by the gate of Benjamin.
For this indignity to God's prophet Pashur was told by
Jeremiah that his name was changed to Magor-missabib (terror
on every side) and that he and all his house should be
carried captives to Babylon and there die. (Jeremiah 20:1-6)
(B.C. 589.)
Passage
Used in the plural, (Jeremiah 22:20) probably to denote the
mountain region of Abarim on the east side of Jordan. It also
denotes a river ford or mountain gorge or pass.
Passover
the first of the three great annual festivals of the Israelites
celebrated in the month Nisan (March-April, from the 14th to
the 21st. (Strictly speaking the Passover only applied to the
paschal supper and the feast of unleavened bread followed,
which was celebrated to the 21st.) (For the corresponding dates
in our month, see Jewish calendar at the end of this volume.)
The following are the principal passages in the Pentateuch
relating to the Passover: (Exodus 12:1-51; 13:3-10; 23:14-19;
34:18-26; Leviticus 23:4-14; Numbers 9:1-14; 28:16-25; 16:1-6)
Why instituted .--This feast was instituted by God to
commemorate the deliverance of the Israelites from Egyptian
bondage and the sparing of their firstborn when the destroying
angel smote the first-born of the Egyptians. The deliverance
from Egypt was regarded as the starting-point of the Hebrew
nation. The Israelites were then raised from the condition of
bondmen under a foreign tyrant to that of a free people owing
allegiance to no one but Jehovah. The prophet in a later age
spoke of the event as a creation and a redemption of the
nation. God declares himself to be "the Creator of Israel." The
Exodus was thus looked upon as the birth of the nation; the
Passover was its annual birthday feast. It was the yearly
memorial of the dedication of the people to him who had saved
their first-born from the destroyer, in order that they might
be made holy to himself. First celebration of the Passover
.--On the tenth day of the month, the head of each family was
to select from the flock either a lamb or a kid, a male of the
first year, without blemish. If his family was too small to eat
the whole of the lamb, he was permitted to invite his nearest
neighbor to join the party. On the fourteenth day of the month
he was to kill his lamb, while the sun was setting. He was then
to take blood in a basin and with a sprig of hyssop to sprinkle
it on the two side-posts and the lintel of the door of the
house. The lamb was then thoroughly roasted, whole. It was
expressly forbidden that it should be boiled, or that a bone of
it should be broken. Unleavened bread and bitter herbs were to
be eaten with the flesh. No male who was uncircumcised was to
join the company. Each one was to have his loins girt, to hold
a staff in his hand, and to have shoes on his feet. He was to
eat in haste, and it would seem that he was to stand during the
meal. The number of the party was to be calculated as nearly as
possible, so that all the flesh of the lamb might be eaten; but
if any portion of it happened to remain, it was to be burned in
the morning. No morsel of it was to be carried out of the
house. The lambs were selected, on the fourteenth they were
slain and the blood sprinkled, and in the following evening,
after the fifteenth day of the had commenced the first paschal
meal was eaten. At midnight the firstborn of the Egyptians were
smitten. The king and his people were now urgent that the
Israelites should start immediately, and readily bestowed on
them supplies for the journey. In such haste did the Israelites
depart, on that very day, (Numbers 33:3) that they packed up
their kneading troughs containing the dough prepared for the
morrow's provisions, which was not yet leavened. Observance of
the Passover in later times .--As the original institution of
the Passover in Egypt preceded the establishment of the
priesthood and the regulation of the service of the tabernacle.
It necessarily fell short in several particulars of the
observance of the festival according to the fully-developed
ceremonial law. The head of the family slew the lamb in his own
house, not in the holy place; the blood was sprinkled on the
doorway, not on the altar. But when the law was perfected,
certain particulars were altered in order to assimilate the
Passover to the accustomed order of religious service. In the
twelfth and thirteenth chapters of Exodus there are not only
distinct references to the observance of the festival in future
ages (e.g.) (Exodus 12:2,14,17,24-27,42; 13:2,5,8-10) but there
are several injunctions which were evidently not intended for
the first Passover, and which indeed could not possibly have
been observed. Besides the private family festival, there were
public and national sacrifices offered each of the seven days
of unleavened bread. (Numbers 28:19) On the second day also the
first-fruits of the barley harvest were offered in the temple.
(Leviticus 23:10) In the latter notices of the festival in the
books of the law there are particulars added which appear as
modifications of the original institution. (Leviticus 23:10-14;
Numbers 28:16-25; 16:1-6) Hence it is not without reason that
the Jewish writers have laid great stress on the distinction
between "the Egyptian Passover" and "the perpetual Passover."
Mode and order of the paschal meal .--All work except that
belonging to a few trades connected with daily life was
suspended for some hours before the evening of the 14th Nisan.
It was not lawful to eat any ordinary food after midday. No
male was admitted to the table unless he was circumcised, even
if he were of the seed of Israel. (Exodus 12:48) It was
customary for the number of a party to be not less than ten.
When the meal was prepared, the family was placed round the
table, the paterfamilias taking a place of honor, probably
somewhat raised above the rest. When the party was arranged the
first cup of wine was filled, and a blessing was asked by the
head of the family on the feast, as well as a special, one on
the cup. The bitter herbs were then placed on the table, and a
portion of them eaten, either with Or without the sauce. The
unleavened bread was handed round next and afterward the lamb
was placed on the table in front of the head of the family. The
paschal lamb could be legally slain and the blood and fat
offered only in the national sanctuary. (16:2) Before the lamb
was eaten the second cup of wine was filled, and the son, in
accordance with (Exodus 12:26) asked his father the meaning of
the feast. In reply, an account was given of the sufferings of
the Israelites in Egypt and of their deliverance, with a
particular explanation of (26:5) and the first part of the
Hallel (a contraction from Hallelujah), Psal 113, 114, was
sung. This being gone through, the lamb was carved and eaten.
The third cup of wine was poured out and drunk, and soon
afterward the fourth. The second part of the Hallel, Psal 115
to 118 was then sung. A fifth wine-cup appears to have been
occasionally produced, But perhaps only in later times. What
was termed the greater Hallel, Psal 120 to 138 was sung on such
occasions. The Israelites who lived in the country appear to
have been accommodated at the feast by the inhabitants of
Jerusalem in their houses, so far its there was room for them.
(Matthew 26:18; Luke 22:10-12) Those who could not be received
into the city encamped without the walls in tents as the
pilgrims now do at Mecca. The Passover as a type .--The
Passover was not only commemorative but also typical. "The
deliverance which it commemorated was a type of the great
salvation it foretold."--No other shadow of things to come
contained in the law can vie with the festival of the Passover
in expressiveness and completeness. (1) The paschal lamb must
of course be regarded as the leading feature in the ceremonial
of the festival. The lamb slain typified Christ the "Lamb of
God." slain for the sins of the world. Christ "our Passover is
sacrificed for us." (1 Corinthians 5:7) According to the divine
purpose, the true Lamb of God was slain at nearly the same time
as "the Lord's Passover" at the same season of the year; and at
the same time of the day as the daily sacrifice at the temple,
the crucifixion beginning at the hour of the morning sacrifice
and ending at the hour of the evening sacrifice. That the lamb
was to be roasted and not boiled has been supposed to
commemorate the haste of the departure of the Israelites. It is
not difficult to determine the reason of the command "not a
bone of him shall be broken." The lamb was to be a symbol of
unity--the unity of the family, the unity of the nation, the
unity of God with his people whom he had taken into covenant
with himself. (2) The unleavened bread ranks next in importance
to the paschal lamb. We are warranted in concluding that
unleavened bread had a peculiar sacrificial character,
according to the law. It seems more reasonable to accept St,
Paul's reference to the subject, (1 Corinthians 5:6-8) as
furnishing the true meaning of the symbol. Fermentation is
decomposition, a dissolution of unity. The pure dry biscuit
would be an apt emblem of unchanged duration, and, in its
freedom from foreign mixture, of purity also. (3) The offering
of the omer or first sheaf of the harvest, (Leviticus 23:10-14)
signified deliverance from winter the bondage of Egypt being
well considered as a winter in the history of the nation. (4)
The consecration of the first-fruits, the firstborn of the
soil, is an easy type of the consecration of the first born of
the Israelites, and of our own best selves, to God. Further
than this (1) the Passover is a type of deliverance from the
slavery of sin. (2) It is the passing over of the doom we
deserve for your sins, because the blood of Christ has been
applied to us by faith. (3) The sprinkling of the blood upon
the door-posts was a symbol of open confession of our
allegiance and love. (4) The Passover was useless unless eaten;
so we live upon the Lord Jesus Christ. (5) It was eaten with
bitter herbs, as we must eat our passover with the bitter herbs
of repentance and confession, which yet, like the bitter herbs
of the Passover, are a fitting and natural accompaniment. (6)
As the Israelites ate the Passover all prepared for the
journey, so do we with a readiness and desire to enter the
active service of Christ, and to go on the journey toward
heaven.--ED.)
Patara
(city of Patarus), a Lycian city situated on the southwestern
shore of Lycia, not far from the left bank of the river
Xanthus. The coast here is very mountainous and bold.
Immediately opposite is the island of Rhodes. Patara was
practically the seaport of the city of Xanthus, which was ten
miles distant. These notices of its position and maritime
importance introduce us to the single mention of the place in
the Bible-- (Acts 21:1,2)
Pathros
(region of the south), a part of Egypt, and a Mizraite tribe
whose people were called Pathrusim. In the list of the
Mizraites the Pathrusim occur after the Naphtuhim and before
the Caluhim; the latter being followed by the notice of the
Philistines and by the Caphtorim. (Genesis 10:13,14; 1
Chronicles 1:12) Pathros is mentioned in the prophecies of
Isaiah, (Isaiah 11:11) Jeremiah (Jeremiah 44:1,15) and Ezekiel.
(Ezekiel 29:14; 30:13-18) It was probably part or all of upper
Egypt, and we may trace its name in the Pathyrite name, in
which Thebes was situated.
Pathrusim
people of Pathros. [[943]Pathros]
Patmos
(Revelation 1:9) a rugged and bare island in the AEgean Sea, 20
miles south of Samos and 24 west of Asia Minor. It was the
scene of the banishment of St. John in the reign of Domitian,
A.D. 95. Patmos is divided into two nearly equal parts, a
northern and a southern, by a very narrow isthmus where, on the
east side are the harbor and the town. On the hill to the
south, crowning a commanding height, is the celebrated
monastery which bears the name of "John the Divine." Halfway up
the descent is the cave or grotto where tradition says that St.
John received the Revelation.
Patriarch
(father of a tribe), the name given to the head of a family or
tribe in Old Testament times. In common usage the title of
patriarch is assigned especially to those whose lives are
recorded in Scripture previous to the time of Moses, as Adam,
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. ("In the early history of the Hebrews
we find the ancestor or father of a family retaining authority
over his children and his children's children so long as he
lived, whatever new connections they might form when the father
died the branch families did not break off and form new
communities, but usually united under another common head. The
eldest son was generally invested with this dignity. His
authority was paternal. He was honored as central point of
connection and as the representative of the whole kindred. Thus
each great family had its patriarch or head, and each tribe its
prince, selected from the several heads of the families which
it embraced."--McClintock and Strong.) ("After the destruction
of Jerusalem, patriarch was the title of the chief religious
rulers of the Jews in Asia and in early Christian times it
became the designation of the bishops of Rome, Constantinople,
Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem."--American Cyclopedia .)
Patrobas
(paternal),a Christian at Rome to whom St. Paul sends his
salutation. (Romans 16:14) Like many other names mentioned in
Roma 16 this was borne by at least one member of the emperor's
household. Suet. Galba. 20; Martial, Ep. ii. 32, 3. (A.D. 55.)
Pau
(bleating) (but in (1 Chronicles 1:50) [944]Pai), the capital
of Hadar king of Edom. (Genesis 36:39) Its position is unknown.
Paul
(small, little). Nearly all the original materials for the life
St. Paul are contained in the Acts of the Apostles and in the
Pauline epistles. Paul was born in Tarsus, a city of Cilicia.
(It is not improbable that he was born between A.D. and A.D.
5.) Up to the time of his going forth as an avowed preacher of
Christ to the Gentiles, the apostle was known by the name of
Saul. This was the Jewish name which he received from his
Jewish parents. But though a Hebrew of the Hebrews, he was born
in a Gentile city. Of his parents we know nothing, except that
his father was of the tribe of Benjamin, (Philemon 3:5) and a
Pharisee, (Acts 23:6) that Paul had acquired by some means the
Roman franchise ("I was free born,") (Acts 22:23) and that he
was settled in Tarsus. At Tarsus he must have learned to use
the Greek language with freedom and mastery in both speaking
and writing. At Tarsus also he learned that trade of
"tent-maker," (Acts 18:3) at which he afterward occasionally
wrought with his own hands. There was a goat's-hair cloth
called cilicium manufactured in Cilicia, and largely used for
tents, Saul's trade was probably that of making tents of this
hair cloth. When St. Paul makes his defence before his
countrymen at Jerusalem, (Acts 22:1) ... he tells them that,
though born in Tarsus he had been "brought up" in Jerusalem. He
must therefore, have been yet a boy when was removed, in all
probability for the sake of his education, to the holy city of
his fathers. He learned, he says, at the feet of Gamaliel." He
who was to resist so stoutly the usurpations of the law had for
his teacher one of the most eminent of all the doctors of the
law. Saul was yet "a young man," (Acts 7:58) when the Church
experienced that sudden expansion which was connected with the
ordaining of the seven appointed to serve tables, and with the
special power and inspiration of Stephen. Among those who
disputed with Stephen were some "of them of Cilicia." We
naturally think of Saul as having been one of these, when we
find him afterward keeping the clothes of those suborned
witnesses who, according to the law, (17:7) were the first to
cast stones at Stephen. "Saul," says the sacred writer
significantly "was consenting unto his death." Saul's
conversion . A.D. 37.--The persecutor was to be converted.
Having undertaken to follow up the believers "unto strange
cities." Saul naturally turned his thoughts to Damascus. What
befell him as he journeyed thither is related in detail three
times in the Acts, first by the historian in his own person,
then in the two addresses made by St. Paul at Jerusalem and
before Agrippa. St. Luke's statement is to be read in (Acts
9:3-19) where, however, the words "it is hard for thee to kick
against the pricks," included in the English version, ought to
be omitted (as is done in the Revised Version). The sudden
light from heaven; the voice of Jesus speaking with authority
to his persecutor; Saul struck to the ground, blinded,
overcome; the three-days suspense; the coming of Ananias as a
messenger of the Lord and Saul's baptism,--these were the
leading features at the great event, and in these we must look
for the chief significance of the conversion. It was in
Damascus that he was received into the church by Ananias, and
here to the astonishment of all his hearers, he proclaimed
Jesus in the synagogues, declaring him to be the Son of God.
The narrative in the Acts tells us simply that he was occupied
in this work, with increasing vigor, for "many days," up to the
time when imminent danger drove him from Damascus. From the
Epistle to the Galatians, (Galatians 1:17,18) we learn that the
many days were at least a good part of "three years," A.D.
37-40, and that Saul, not thinking it necessary to procure
authority to teach from the apostles that were before him, went
after his conversion to Arabia, and returned from thence to us.
We know nothing whatever of this visit to Arabia; but upon his
departure from Damascus we are again on a historical ground,
and have the double evidence of St. Luke in the Acts of the
apostle in his Second Epistle the Corinthians. According to the
former, the Jews lay in wait for Saul, intending to kill him,
and watched the gates of the city that he might not escape from
them. Knowing this, the disciples took him by night and let him
down in a basket from the wall. Having escaped from Damascus,
Saul betook himself to Jerusalem (A.D. 40), and there "assayed
to join himself to the disciples; but they were all afraid of
him, and believed not he was a disciple." Barnabas'
introduction removed the fears of the apostles, and Saul "was
with them coming in and going out at Jerusalem." But it is not
strange that the former persecutor was soon singled out from
the other believers as the object of a murderous hostility. He
was,therefore, again urged to flee; and by way of Caesarea
betook himself to his native city, Tarsus. Barnabas was sent on
a special mission to Antioch. As the work grew under his hands,
he felt the need of help, went himself to Tarsus to seek Saul,
and succeeded in bringing him to Antioch. There they labored
together unremittingly for a whole year." All this time Saul
was subordinate to Barnabas. Antioch was in constant
communication with Cilicia, with Cyprus, with all the
neighboring countries. The Church was pregnant with a great
movement, and time of her delivery was at hand. Something of
direct expectation seems to be implied in what is said of the
leaders of the Church at Antioch, that they were "ministering
to the Lord and fasting," when the Holy Ghost spoke to them:
"Separate me Barnabas and Saul for the work whereunto I have
called them." Everything was done with orderly gravity in the
sending forth of the two missionaries. Their brethren after
fasting and prayer, laid their hands on them, and so they
departed. The first missionary journey. A.D. 45-49.--As soon as
Barnabas and Saul reached Cyprus they began to "announce the
word of God," but at first they delivered their message in the
synagogues of the Jews only. When they had gone through the
island, from Salamis to Paphos, they were called upon to
explain their doctrine to an eminent Gentile, Sergius Paulus,
the proconsul, who was converted. Saul's name was now changed
to Paul, and he began to take precedence of Barnabas. From
Paphos "Paul and his company" set sail for the mainland, and
arrived at Perga in Pamphylia. Here the heart of their
companion John failed him, and he returned to Jerusalem. From
Perga they travelled on to a place obscure in secular history,
but most memorable in the history of the Kingdom of
Christ--Antioch in Pisidia. Rejected by the Jews, they became
bold and outspoken, and turned from them to the Gentiles. At
Antioch now, as in every city afterward, the unbelieving Jews
used their influence with their own adherents among the
Gentiles to persuade the authorities or the populace to
persecute the apostles and to drive them from the place. Paul
and Barnabas now travelled on to Iconium where the occurrences
at Antioch were repeated, and from thence to the Lycaonian
country which contained the cities Lystra and Derbe. Here they
had to deal with uncivilized heathen. At Lystra the healing of
a cripple took place. Thereupon these pagans took the apostles
for gods, calling Barnabas, who was of the more imposing
presence, Jupiter, and Paul, who was the chief speaker,
Mercurius. Although the people of Lystra had been so ready to
worship Paul and Barnabas, the repulse of their idolatrous
instincts appears to have provoked them, and they allowed
themselves to be persuaded into hostility be Jews who came from
Antioch and Iconium, so that they attacked Paul with stones,
and thought they had killed him. He recovered, however as the
disciples were standing around him, and went again into the
city. The next day he left it with Barnabas, and went to Derbe,
and thence they returned once more to Lystra, and so to Iconium
and Antioch. In order to establish the churches after their
departure they solemnly appointed "elders" in every city. Then
they came down to the coast, and from Attalia, they sailed;
home to Antioch in Syria, where they related the successes
which had been granted to them, and especially the opening of
the door of faith to the Gentiles." And so the first missionary
journey ended. The council at Jerusalem.--Upon that missionary
journey follows most naturally the next important scene which
the historian sets before us--the council held at Jerusalem to
determine the relations of Gentile believers to the law of
Moses. (Acts 15:1-29; Galatians 2) Second missionary journey .
A.D. 50-54.--The most resolute courage, indeed, was required
for the work to which St. Paul was now publicly pledged. He
would not associate with himself in that work one who had
already shown a want of constancy. This was the occasion of
what must have been a most painful difference between him and
his comrade in the faith and in past perils, Barnabas. (Acts
15:35-40) Silas, or Silvanus, becomes now a chief companion of
the apostle. The two went together through Syria and Cilicia,
visiting the churches, and so came to Derbe and Lystra. Here
they find Timotheus, who had become a disciple on the former
visit of the apostle. Him St. Paul took and Circumcised. St.
Luke now steps rapidly over a considerable space of the
apostle's life and labors. "They went throughout Phrygia and
the region of Galatia." (Luke 16:6) At this time St. Paul was
founding "the churches of Galatia." (Galatians 1:2) He himself
gives some hints of the circumstances of his preaching in that
region, of the reception he met with, and of the ardent though
unstable character of the people. (Galatians 4:13-15) Having
gone through Phrygia and Galatia, he intended to visit, the
western coast; but "they were forbidden by the Holy Ghost to
preach the "word" there. Then, being on the borders of Mysia,
they thought of going back to the northeast into Bithynia; but
again the Spirit of Jesus "suffered them not," so they passed
by Mysia and came down to Troas. St. Paul saw in a vision a
man,of Macedonia, who besought him, saying, "Come over into
Macedonia and help us." The vision was at once accepted as a
heavenly intimation; the help wanted, by the Macedonians was
believed to be the preaching of the gospel. It is at this point
that the historian, speaking of St. Paul's company, substitutes
"we" for "they." He says nothing of himself we can only infer
that St. Luke, to whatever country he belonged, became a
companion of St. Paul at Troas. The party thus reinforced,
immediately set sail from Troas, touched at Samothrace, then
landed on the continent at Neapolis, and thence journeyed to
Philippi. The first convert in Macedonia was Lydia, an Asiatic
woman, at Philippi. (Acts 18:13,14) At Philippi Paul and Silas
were arrested, beaten and put in prison, having cast out the
spirit of divination from a female slave who had brought her
masters much gain by her power. This cruel wrong was to be the
occasion of a signal appearance of the God of righteousness and
deliverance. The narrative tells of the earthquake, the
jailer's terror, his conversion and baptism. (Acts 16:26-34) In
the morning the magistrates sent word to the prison that the
men might be let go; but Paul denounced plainly their unlawful
acts, informing them moreover that those whom they had beaten
and imprisoned without trial; were Roman citizens. The
magistrates, in great alarm, saw the necessity of humbling
themselves. They came and begged them to leave the city. Paul
and Silas consented to do so, and, after paying a visit to "the
brethren" in the house of Lydia, they departed. Leaving St.
Luke, and perhaps Timothy for a short time at Philippi, Paul
and Silas travelled through Amphipolis and Apollonia and
stopped again at Thessalonica. Here again, as in Pisidian
Antioch, the envy of the Jews was excited, and the mob
assaulted the house of Jason with whom Paul and Silas were
staying as guests, and, not finding them, dragged Jason himself
and some other brethren before the magistrates. After these
signs of danger the brethren immediately sent away Paul and
Silas by night. They next came to Berea. Here they found the
Jews more noble than those at Thessalonica had been.
Accordingly they gained many converts, both Jews and Greeks;
but the Jews of Thessalonica, hearing of it, sent emissaries to
stir up the people, and it was thought best that Paul should
himself leave the city whilst Silas and Timothy
remained-behind. Some of the brethren went with St. Paul as far
as Athens, where they left him carrying back a request to Silas
and Timothy that they would speedily join him. Here the apostle
delivered that wonderful discourse reported in (Acts 17:22-31)
He gained but few converts at Athens, and soon took his
departure and went to Corinth. He was testifying with unusual
effort and anxiety when Silas and Timothy came from Macedonia
and joined him. Their arrival was the occasion of the writing
of the First Epistle to the Thessalonians. The two epistles to
the Thessalonians--and these alone--belong to the present
missionary journey. They were written from Corinth A.D. 52, 53.
When Silas and Timotheus came to Corinth, St. Paul was
testifying to the Jews with great earnestness, but with little
success. Corinth was the chief city of the province of Achaia,
and the residence of the proconsul. During St. Paul stay the
proconsular office was held by Gallio, a brother of the
philosopher Seneca. Before him the apostle was summoned by his
Jewish enemies, who hoped to bring the Roman authority to bear
upon him as an innovator in religion. But Gallio perceived at
once, before Paul could "open his mouth" to defend himself,
that the movement was due to Jewish prejudice, and refused to
go into the question. Then a singular scene occurred. The
Corinthian spectators, either favoring Paul or actuated only by
anger against the Jews, seized on the principal person of those
who had brought the charge, and beat him before the
judgment-seat. Gallio left these religious quarrels to settle
themselves. The apostle therefore, was not allowed to be
"hurt," and remained some time longer at Corinth unmolested.
Having been the instrument of accomplishing this work, Paul
departed for Jerusalem, wishing to attend a festival there.
Before leaving Greece, he cut off his hair at Cenchreae, in
fulfillment of a vow. (Acts 18:18) Paul paid a visit to the
synagogue at Ephesus, but would not stay. Leaving Ephesus, he
sailed to Caesarea, and from thence went up to Jerusalem,
spring, A.D. 54, and "saluted the church." It is argued, from
considerations founded on the suspension of navigation during
the winter months, that the festival was probably the
Pentecost. From Jerusalem the apostle went almost immediately
down to Antioch, thus returning to the same place from which he
had started with Silas. Third missionary journey, including the
stay at Ephesus . A.D. 54-58. (Acts 18:23; Acts 21:17)--The
great epistles which belong to this period, those to the
Galatians, Corinthians and Romans, show how the "Judaizing"
question exercised at this time the apostle's mind. St. Paul
"spent some time" at Antioch, and during this stay as we are
inclined to believe, his collision with St. Peter (Galatians
2:11-14) took place. When he left Antioch, he "went over all
the country of Galatia and Phrygia in order, strengthening all
the disciples," and giving orders concerning the collection for
the saints. (1 Corinthians 18:1) It is probable that the
Epistle to the Galatians was written soon after this
visit--A.D. 56-57. This letter was in all probability sent from
Ephesus. This was the goal of the apostle's journeyings through
Asia Minor. He came down to Ephesus from the upper districts of
Phrygia. Here he entered upon his usual work. He went into the
synagogue, and for three months he spoke openly, disputing and
persuading concerning "the kingdom of God." At the end of this
time the obstinacy and opposition of some of the Jews led him
to give up frequenting the synagogue, and he established the
believers as a separate society meeting "in the school of
Tyrannus." This continued for two years. During this time many
things occurred of which the historian of the Acts chooses two
examples, the triumph over magical arts and the great
disturbance raised by the silversmiths who made shrines
Diana--among which we are to note further the writing of the
First Epistle to the Corinth A.D. 57. Before leaving Ephesus
Paul went into Macedonia, where he met Titus, who brought him
news of the state of the Corinthian church. Thereupon he wrote
the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, A.D. 57, and sent it by
the hands of Titus and two other brethren to Corinth. After
writing this epistle, St. Paul travelled throughout Macedonia,
perhaps to the borders of Illyricum, (Romans 15:19) and then
went to Corinth. The narrative in the Acts tells us that "when
he had gone over those parts (Macedonia), and had given them
much exhortation he came into Greece, and there abode three
months." (Acts 20:2,3) There is only one incident which we can
connect with this visit to Greece, but that is a very important
one--the writing of his Epistle to the Romans, A.D. 58. That
this was written at this time from Corinth appears from
passages in the epistle itself and has never been doubted. The
letter is a substitute for the personal visit which he had
longed "for many years" to pay. Before his departure from
Corinth, St. Paul was joined again by St. Luke, as we infer
from the change in the narrative from the third to the first
person. He was bent on making a journey to Jerusalem, for a
special purpose and within a limited time. With this view he
was intending to go by sea to Syria. But he was made aware of
some plot of the Jews for his destruction, to be carried out
through this voyage; and he determined to evade their malice by
changing his route. Several brethren were associated with him
in this expedition, the bearers no doubt, of the collections
made in all the churches for the poor at Jerusalem. These were
sent on by sea, and probably the money with them, to Troas,
where they were to await Paul. He, accompanied by Luke, went
northward through Macedonia. Whilst the vessel which conveyed
the rest of the party sailed from Troas to Assos, Paul gained
some time by making the journey by land. At Assos he went on
board again. Coasting along by Mitylene, Chios, Samos and
Trogyllium, they arrived at Miletus. At Miletus, however there
was time to send to Ephesus, and the elders of the church were
invited to come down to him there. This meeting is made the
occasion for recording another characteristic and
representative address of St. Paul. (Acts 20:18-35) The course
of the voyage from Miletas was by Coos and Rhodes to Patara,
and from Patara in another vessel past Cyprus to Tyre. Here
Paul and his company spent seven days. From Tyre they sailed to
Ptolemais, where they spent one day, and from Ptolemais
proceeded, apparently by land, to Caesarea. They now "tarried
many days" at Caesarea. During this interval the prophet
Agabus, (Acts 11:28) came down from Jerusalem, and crowned the
previous intimations of danger with a prediction expressively
delivered. At this stage a final effort was made to dissuade
Paul from going up to Jerusalem, by the Christians of Caesarea
and by his travelling companions. After a while they went up to
Jerusalem and were gladly received by the brethren. This is St.
Paul's fifth an last visit to Jerusalem. St. Paul's
imprisonment: Jerusalem . Spring, A.D. 58.--He who was thus
conducted into Jerusalem by a company of anxious friends had
become by this time a man of considerable fame among his
countrymen. He was widely known as one who had taught with
pre-eminent boldness that a way into God's favor was opened to
the Gentiles, and that this way did not lie through the door of
the Jewish law. He had thus roused against himself the bitter
enmity of that unfathomable Jewish pride which was almost us
strong in some of those who had professed the faith of Jesus as
in their unconverted brethren. He was now approaching a crisis
in the long struggle, and the shadow of it has been made to
rest upon his mind throughout his journey to Jerusalem. He came
"ready to die for the name of the Lord Jesus," but he came
expressly to prove himself a faithful Jew and this purpose is
shown at every point of the history. Certain Jews from "Asia,"
who had come up for the pentecostal feast, and who had a
personal knowledge of Paul, saw him in the temple. They set
upon him at once, and stirred up the people against him. There
was instantly a great commotion; Paul was dragged out of the
temple, the doors of which were immediately shut, and the
people having him in their hands, were going to kill him. Paul
was rescued from the violence of the multitude by the Roman
officer, who made him his own prisoner, causing him to be
chained to two soldiers, and then proceeded to inquire who he
was and what he had done. The inquiry only elicited confused
outcries, and the "chief captain" seems to have imagined that
the apostle might perhaps be a certain Egyptian pretender who
recently stirred up a considerable rising of the people. The
account In the (Acts 21:34-40) tells us with graphic touches
how St. Paul obtained leave and opportunity to address the
people in a discourse which is related at length. Until the
hated word of a mission to the Gentiles had been spoken, the
Jews had listened to the speaker. "Away with such a fellow from
the earth," the multitude now shouted; "it is not fit that he
should live." The Roman commander seeing the tumult that arose
might well conclude that St. Paul had committed some heinous
offence; and carrying him off, he gave orders that he should be
forced by scourging to confess his crime. Again the apostle
took advantage of his Roman citizenship to protect himself from
such an outrage. The chief captain set him free from bonds, but
on the next day called together the chief priests and the
Sanhedrin, and brought Paul as a prisoner before them. On the
next day a conspiracy was formed which the historian relates
with a singular fullness of detail. More than forty of the Jews
bound themselves under a curse neither to eat nor drink until
they had killed Paul. The plot was discovered, and St. Paul was
hurried away from Jerusalem. The chief captain, Claudius Lysias
determined to send him to Caesarea to Felix, the governor or
procurator of Judea. He therefor put him in charge of a strong
guard of soldiers, who took him by night as far as Antipatris.
From thence a smaller detachment conveyed him to Caesarea,
where they delivered up their prisoner into the hands of the
governor. Imprisonment at Caesarea. A.D. 58-60.--St. Paul was
henceforth to the end of the period embraced in the Acts, if
not to the end of his life, in Roman custody. This custody was
in fact a protection to him, without which he would have fallen
a victim to the animosity of the Jews. He seems to have been
treated throughout with humanity and consideration. The
governor before whom he was now to be tried, according to
Tacitus and Josephus, was a mean and dissolute tyrant. After
hearing St, Paul's accusers and the apostle's defence, Felix
made an excuse for putting off the matter, and gave orders that
the prisoner should be treated with indulgence and that his
friends should be allowed free access to him. After a while he
heard him again. St. Paul remained in custody until Felix left
the province. The unprincipled governor had good reason to seek
to ingratiate himself with the Jews; and to please them, be
handed over Paul, as an untried prisoner, to his successor,
Festus. Upon his arrival in the province, Festus went up
without delay from Caesarea to Jerusalem, and the leading Jews
seized the opportunity of asking that Paul might be brought up
there for trial intending to assassinate him by the way. But
Festus would not comply with their request, He invited them to
follow him on his speedy return to Caesarea, and a trial took
place there, closely resembling that before Felix. "They had
certain questions against him," Festus says to Agrippa, "of
their own superstition (or religion), and of one Jesus, who was
dead, whom Paul affirmed to be alive. And being puzzled for my
part as to such inquiries, I asked him whether he would go to
Jerusalem to be tried there." This proposal, not a very likely
one to be accepted, was the occasion of St. Paul's appeal to
Caesar. The appeal having been allowed, Festus reflected that
he must send with the prisoner a report of "the crimes laid
against him." He therefore took advantage of an opportunity
which offered itself in a few days to seek some help in the
matter. The Jewish prince Agrippa arrived with his sister
Bernice on a visit to the new governor. To him Festus
communicated his perplexity. Agrippa expressed a desire to hear
Paul himself. Accordingly Paul conducted his defence before the
king; and when it was concluded Festus and Agrippa, and their
companions, consulted together, and came to the conclusion that
the accused was guilty of nothing that deserved death or
imprisonment. "Agrippa"s final answer to the inquiry of Festus
was, "This man might have been set at liberty, if he had not
appealed unto Caesar." The voyage to Rome and shipwreck.
Autumn, A.D. 60.--No formal trial of St. Paul had yet taken
place. After a while arrangements were made to carry "Paul and
certain other prisoners," in the custody of a centurion named
Julius, into Italy; and amongst the company, whether by favor
or from any other reason, we find the historian of the Acts,
who in chapters 27 and 28 gives a graphic description of the
voyage to Rome and the shipwreck on the Island of Melita or
Malta. After a three-months stay in Malta the soldiers and
their prisoners left in an Alexandria ship for Italy. They
touched at Syracuse, where they stayed three days, and at
Rhegium, from which place they were carried with a fair wind to
Puteoli, where they left their ship and the sea. At Puteoli
they found "brethren," for it was an important place and
especially a chief port for the traffic between Alexandria and
Rome; and by these brethren they were exhorted to stay a while
with them. Permission seems to have been granted by the
centurion; and whilst they were spending seven days at Puteoli
news of the apostle's arrival was sent to Rome. (Spring, A.D.
61.) First imprisonment of St. Paul at Rome . A.D. 61-63.--On
their arrival at Rome the centurion delivered up his prisoners
into the proper custody that of the praetorian prefect. Paul
was at once treated with special consideration and was allowed
to dwell by himself with the soldier who guarded him. He was
now therefore free "to preach the gospel to them that were at
Rome also;" and proceeded without delay to act upon his
rule--"to the Jews first," But as of old, the reception of his
message by the Jews was not favorable. He turned, therefore,
again to the Gentiles, and for two years he dwelt in his own
hired house. These are the last words of the Acts. But St.
Paul's career is not abruptly closed. Before he himself fades
out of our sight in the twilight of ecclesiastical tradition,
we have letters written by himself which contribute some
particulars to his biography. Period of the later epistles.--To
that imprisonment to which St. Luke has introduced us--the
imprisonment which lasted for such a tedious time, though
tempered by much indulgence--belongs the noble group of letters
to Philemon, to the Colossians, to the Ephesians and to the
Philippians. The three former of these were written at one
time, and sent by the same messengers. Whether that to the
Philippians was written before or after these we cannot
determine; but the tone of it seems to imply that a crisis was
approaching, and therefore it is commonly regarded us the
latest of the four. In this epistle St. Paul twice expresses a
confident hope that before long he may be able to visit the
Philippians in person. (Philemon 1:25; 2:24) Whether this hope
was fulfilled or not has been the occasion of much controversy.
According to the general opinion the apostle was liberated from
imprisonment at the end of two years, having been acquitted by
Nero A.D. 63, and left Rome soon after writing the letter to
the Philippians. He spent some time in visits to Greece, Asia
Minor and Spain, and during the latter part of this time wrote
the letters (first epistles) to Timothy and Titus from
Macedonia, A.D. 65. After these were written he was apprehended
again and sent to Rome. Second imprisonment at Rome . A.D.
65-67.--The apostle appears now to have been treated not as an
honorable state prisoner but as a felon, (2 Timothy 2:9) but he
was allowed to write the second letter to Timothy, A.D. 67. For
what remains we have the concurrent testimony of ecclesiastical
antiquity that he was beheaded at Rome, by Nero in the great
persecutions of the Christians by that emperor, A.D. 67 or 68.
Pavement
[[945]Gabbatha]
Pavilion
a temporary movable tent or habitation.
+ Soc, properly an enclosed place, also rendered "tabernacle,"
"covert" and "den;" once only "pavilion." (Psalms 27:5)
(Among the Egyptians pavilions were built in a similar style
to houses, though on a smaller scale in various parts of the
country, and in the foreign districts through which the
Egyptian armies passed, for the use of the king--Wilkinson .)
+ Succah, Usually "tabernacle" and "booth."
+ Shaphrur and shaphrir, a word used once only, in (Jeremiah
49:10) to signify glory or splendor, and hence probably to be
understood of the splendid covering of the royal throne.
Top
of Page |
Table of
Contents Peacocks
(Heb. tuccyyim). Among the natural products which Solomon's
fleet brought home to Jerusalem, mention is made of "peacocks,"
(1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chronicles 9:21) which is probably the
correct translation. The Hebrew word may be traced to the
Talmud or Malabaric togei, "peacock."
Pearl
(Heb. gabish). The Hebrew word in (Job 28:18) probably means
"crystal." Pearls, however are frequently mentioned in the New
Testament, (Matthew 13:45; 1 Timothy 2:9; Revelation 17:4;
21:21) and were considered by the ancients among the most
precious of gems, and were highly esteemed as ornaments. The
kingdom of heaven is compared to a "pearl of great price." In
(Matthew 7:6) pearls are used metaphorically for anything of
value, or perhaps more especially for "wise sayings." (The
finest specimens of the pearl are yielded by the pearl oyster
(Avicula margaritifera), still found in abundance in the
Persian Gulf and near the coasts of Ceylon, Java and Sumatra.
The oysters grow in clusters on rocks in deep water, and the
pearl is found inside the shell, and is the result of a
diseased secretion caused by the introduction of foreign
bodies, as sand, etc., between the mantle and the shell. They
are obtained by divers trained to the business. March or April
is the time for pearl fishing. A single shell sometimes yields
eight to twelve pearls. The size of a good Oriental pearl
varies from that of a pea to about three times that size. A
handsome necklace of pearls the size of peas is worth,000.
Pearls have been valued as high as,000 or,000 apiece.--ED.)
Pedahel
(whom God redeems), the son of Ammihud, and prince of the tribe
of Naphtali. (Numbers 34:28)
Pedaiah
(whom Jehovah redeems).
+ The father of Zebudah, mother of King Jehoiakim. (2 Kings
23:38) (B.C. before 648.)
+ The brother of Salathiel or Shealtiel and father of
Zerubbabel who is usually called the "son of Shealtiel,"
being, as Lord A. Hervey conjectures, in reality his uncle's
successor and heir, in consequence Of the failure of issue in
the direct line. (1 Chronicles 3:17-19) (B.C. before 536.)
+ Son of Parosh, that is, one of the family or that name, who
assisted Nehemiah in repairing the walls of Jerusalem.
(Nehemiah 3:25) (B.C. about 446.)
+ Apparently a priest; one of those who stood on the left hand
of Ezra when he read the law to the people. (Nehemiah 8:4)
(B.C. 445.)
+ A Benjamite, ancestor of Sallu. (Nehemiah 11:7)
+ A Levite in the time of Nehemiah, (Nehemiah 13:13) apparently
the same as 4.
+ The father of Joel, prince of the half tribe of Manasseh in
the reign of David. (1 Chronicles 27:20) (B.C. before 1013.)
Pedarhzur
(whom the rock (i.e. God) redeems), father of Gamaliel, the
chief of the tribe of Manasseh at the time of the exodus.
(Numbers 1:10; 2:20; 7:54,59; 10:23) (B.C. 1491.)
Pekah
(open-eyed), son of Remaliah, originally a captain of Pekaiah
king of Israel, murdered his master seized the throne, and
became the 18th sovereign of the northern kingdom, B.C.
757-740. Under his predecessors Israel had been much weakened
through the payment of enormous tribute to the Assyrians (see
especially) (2 Kings 15:20) and by internal wars and
conspiracies. Pekah seems to have steadily applied himself to
the restoration of power. For this purpose he contracted a
foreign alliance, and fixed his mind on the plunder of the
sister kingdom of Judah. He must have made the treaty by which
he proposed to share its spoil with Rezin king of Damascus,
when Jotham was still on the throne of Jerusalem (2 Kings
10:37) but its execution was long delayed, probably in
consequence of that prince's righteous and vigorous
administration. (2 Chronicles 27:1) ... When however his weak
son Ahaz succeeded to the crown of David, the allies no longer
hesitated, but entered upon the siege of Jerusalem, B.C. 742.
The history of the war is found in 2Kin 13 and 2Chr 28. It is
famous as the occasion of the great prophecies in Isai 7-9. Its
chief result was the Jewish port of Elath on the Red Sea; but
the unnatural alliance of Damascus and Samaria was punished
through the complete overthrow of the ferocious confederates by
Tiglath-pileser. The kingdom of Damascus. was finally
suppressed and Rezin put to death while Pekah was deprived of
at least half his kingdom, including all the northern portion
and the whole district to the east of Jordan. Pekah himself,
now fallen into the position of an Assyrian vassal was of
course compelled to abstain from further attacks on Judah.
Whether his continued tyranny exhausted the patience of his
subjects, or whether his weakness emboldened them to attack
him, is not known; but, from one or the other cause, Hoshea the
son of Elah conspired against him and put him to death.
Pekahiah
(whose eyes Jehovah opened), son and successor of Menahem was
the 17th king of the separate kingdom of Israel, B.C. 759-757.
After a brief reign of scarcely two years a conspiracy was
organized against him by Pekah, who murdered him and seized the
throne.
Pekod
(visitation), an appellative applied to the Chaldeans.
(Jeremiah 50:21; Ezekiel 23:23) Authorities are undecided as to
the meaning of the term.
Pelaiah
(distinguished by Jehovah).
+ A son of Elioenai, of the royal line of Judah. (1 Chronicles
3:24) (B.C. after 400.)
+ One of the Levites who assisted Ezra in expounding the law,
(Nehemiah 8:7) He afterward sealed the covenant with
Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:10) (B.C.445.)
Pelaliah
(judged by Jehovah), the son of Amzi and ancestor of Adaiah.
(Nehemiah 11:12)
Pelatiah
(delivered by Jehovah).
+ Son of Hananiah the son of Zerubbabel. (1 Chronicles 3:21)
(B.C. after 536.)
+ One of the captains of the marauding band of Simeonites who
in the reign of Hezekiah made an expedition to Mount Seir and
smote the Amalekites. (1 Chronicles 4:42) (B.C. about 700.)
+ One of the heads of the people, and probably the name of a
family who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah
10:22) (B.C. about 440.)
+ The son of Benaiah. and one of the princes of the people
against whom Ezekiel was directed to utter the words of doom
recorded in (Ezekiel 11:5-12) (B.C. about 592.)
Peleg
(division, part), son of Eber and brother of Joktan. (Genesis
10:25; 11:16) The only incident connected with his history is
the statement that "in his days was the earth divided." an
event embodied in the meaning of his name--"division." The
reference is to a division of the family of Eber himself, the
younger branch of which (the Joktanids) migrated into southern
Arabia, while the elder remained in Mesopotamia.
Pelet
(liberation),
+ A son of Jahdai in an obscure genealogy. (1 Chronicles 2:47)
+ The son of Azmaveth, that is, either a native of the place of
that name or the son of one of David's heroes. (1 Chronicles
12:3) (B.C. about 1015.)
Peleth
(swiftness).
+ The father of On the Reubenite who joined Dathan and Abiram
in their rebellion. (Numbers 16:1) (B.C. 1490.)
+ Son of Jonathan and a descendant of Jerahmeel. (1 Chronicles
2:33)
Pelethites
(couriers). [[946]Cherethites]
Pelican
(Heb. kaath, sometimes translated "cormorant," as (Isaiah
34:11; Zephaniah 2:14) though in the margin correctly rendered
"pelican"), a voracious waterbird, found most abundantly in
tropical regions. It is equal to the swan in size. (It has a
flat bill fifteen inches long, and the female has under the
bill a pouch capable of great distension. It is capacious
enough to hold fish sufficient for the dinner of half a dozen
men. The young are fed from this pouch, which is emptied of the
food by pressing the pouch against the breast. The pelican's
bill has a crimson tip, and the contrast of this red tip
against the white breast probably gave rise to the tradition
that the bird tore her own breast to feed her young with her
blood. The flesh of the pelican was forbidden to the Jews.
(Leviticus 11:18)--ED.) The psalmist in comparing his pitiable
condition to the pelican, (Psalms 102:6) probably has reference
to its general aspect as it sits in apparent melancholy mood,
with its bill resting on its breast.
Pelonite, The
Two of David's men, Helez and Ahijah, are called Pelonites. (1
Chronicles 11:27,36) (B.C. about 1015.) From (1 Chronicles
27:10) it appears that the former was of the tribe of Ephraim,
and "Pelonite" would therefore be an appellation derived from
his place of birth or residence. "Ahijah the Pelonite" appears
in (2 Samuel 23:34) as "Eliam the son of Ahithophel the
Gilonite," of which the former is a corruption.
Pen
[[947]Writing]
Peniel
(face of God) the name which Jacob gave to the place in which
he had wrestled with God: "He called the name of the place
'face of El,' for I have seen Elohim face to face." (Genesis
32:30) In (Genesis 32:31) and the other passages in which the
name occurs, its form is changed to [948]Penuel. From the
narrative it is evident that Peniel lay somewhere on the north
bank of the Jabbok, and between that torrent and the fords of
the Jordan at Succoth, a few miles north of the glen where the
Jabbok falls into the Jordan.
Peninnah
(coral or pearl), one of the two wives of Elkanah. (1 Samuel
1:2) (B.C. 1125.)
Penny, Pennyworth
In the New Testament "penny," either alone or in the compound
"pennyworth," occurs as the rendering of the Roman denarius .
(Matthew 20:2; 22:10; Mark 6:37; 12:15; Luke 20:24; John 6:7;
Revelation 6:6) The denarius was the chief Roman silver coin,
and was worth about 15 to 17 cents.
Pentateuch, The
is the Greek name given to the five books commonly called the
"five books of Moses." This title is derived from "pente",five,
and "teucos") which, meaning originally "vessel" "instrument,"
etc., came In Alexandrine Greek to mean "book" hence the
fivefold book. In the time of Ezra and Nehemiah it was called
"the law of Moses," (Ezra 7:6) or "the book of the law of
Moses," (Nehemiah 8:1) or simply "the book of Moses." (2
Chronicles 25:4; 35:12; Ezra 6:13; Nehemiah 13:1) This was
beyond all reasonable doubt our existing Pentateuch. The book
which was discovered the temple in the reign of Josiah, and
which is entitled, (2 Chronicles 34:14) "a book of the law of
Jehovah by the hand of Moses," was substantially, it would seem
the same volume, though it may afterward have undergone some
revision by Ezra. The present Jews usually called the whole by
the name of Torah, i.e. "the Law," or Torath Mosheh "the Law of
Moses." The division of the whole work into five parts was
probably made by the Greek translators; for the titles of the
several books are not of Hebrew but of Greek origin. The Hebrew
names are merely taken from the first words of each book, and
in the first instance only designated particular sections and
not whole books. The MSS. of the Pentateuch form a single roll
or volume, and are divided not into books but into the larger
and smaller sections called Parshiyoth and Sedarim . The five
books of the Pentateuch form a consecutive whole. The work,
beginning with the record of creation end the history of the
primitive world, passes on to deal more especially with the
early history of the Jewish family, and finally concludes with
Moses' last discourses and his death. Till the middle of the
last century it was the general opinion of both Jews and
Christians that the whole of the Pentateuch was written by
Moses, with the exception of a few manifestly later
additions,--such as the, 34th chapter of Deuteronomy, which
gives the account of Moses death. The attempt to call in
question the popular belief was made by Astruc, doctor and
professor of medicine in the Royal College at Paris, and court
physician to Louis XIV. He had observed that throughout the
book of Genesis, and as far as the 6th chapter of Exodus,
traces were to be found of two original documents, each
characterized by a distinct use of the names of God; the one by
the name Elohim, and the other by the name Jehovah. [[949]God]
Besides these two principal documents, he supposed Moses to
have made use of ten others in the composition of the earlier
part of his work. The path traced by Astruc has been followed
by numerous German writers; but the various hypotheses which
have been formed upon the subject cannot be presented in this
work. It is sufficient here to state that there is evidence
satisfactory that the main bulk of the Pentateuch, at any rate,
was written by Moses, though the probably availed himself of
existing documents in the composition of the earlier part of
the work. Some detached portions would appear to be of later
origin; and when we remember how entirely, during some periods
of Jewish history, the law seems to have been forgotten, and
again how necessary it would be after the seventy years of
exile to explain some of its archaisms, and to add here and
there short notes to make it more intelligible to the people,
nothing can be more natural than to suppose that such later
additions were made by Ezra and Nehemiah. To briefly sum up the
results of our inquiry--
+ The book of Genesis rests chiefly on documents much earlier
than the time of Moses though it was probably brought to very
nearly its, present shape either by Moses himself or by one
of the elders who acted under him.
+ The books of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers are to a great
extent Mosaic. Besides those portions which are expressly
declared to have been written by him other portions, and
especially the legal sections, were, if not actually written,
in all probability dictated by him.
+ Deuteronomy, excepting the concluding part, is entirely the
work of Moses as it professes to be.
+ It is not probable that this was written before the three
preceding books, because the legislation in Exodus and
Leviticus, as being the more formal, is manifestly the
earlier whilst Deuteronomy is the spiritual interpretation
and application of the law. But the letter is always before
the spirit; the thing before its interpretation.
+ The first composition of the Pentateuch as a whole could not
have taken place till after the Israelites entered Cannan. It
is probable that Joshua and the elders who were associated
with him would provide for its formal arrangement, custody
and transmission.
+ The whole work did not finally assume its present shape till
its revision was undertaken by Ezra after the return from the
Babylonish captivity. For an account of the separate books
see [950]Genesis, [951]Exodus, [952]Leviticus, [953]Numbers,
[954]Deuteronomy.
Pentecost
that is, the fiftieth day (from a Greek word meaning fiftieth),
or Harvest Feast, or Feast of Weeks, may be regarded as a
supplement to the Passover. It lasted for but one day. From the
sixteenth of Nisan seven weeks were reckoned inclusively, and
the next or fiftieth day was the day of Pentecost, which fell
on the sixth of Sivan (about the end of May). (Exodus 23:16;
34:22; Leviticus 23:15,22; Numbers 28) See Jewish calendar at
the end of this volume. The Pentecost was the Jewish
harvest-home, and the people were especially exhorted to
rejoice before Jehovah with their families their servants, the
Levite within their gates, the stranger, the fatherless and the
widow in the place chosen by God for his name, as they brought
a free-will offering of their hand to Jehovah their God.
(16:10,11) The great feature of the celebration was the
presentation of the two loaves made from the first-fruits of
the wheat harvest. With the loaves two lambs were offered as a
peace offering and all were waved before Jehovah and given to
the priests; the leaves being leavened, could not be offered on
the altar. The other sacrifices were, a burnt offering of a
young bullock, two, rams and seven lambs with a meat and drink
offering, and a kid for a sin offering. (Leviticus 23:18,19)
Till the pentecostal leaves were offered, the produce of the
harvest might not be eaten, nor could any other firstfruits be
offered. The whole ceremony was the completion of that
dedication of the harvest to God as its giver, and to whom both
the land and the people were holy, which was begun by the
offering of the wave-sheaf at the Passover. The interval is
still regarded as a religious season. The Pentecost is the only
one of the three great feasts which is not mentioned as the
memorial of events in the history of the Jews; but such a
significance has been found in the fact that the law was given
from Sinai on the fiftieth day after the deliverance from
Egypt. Comp. Exod 12 and 19. In the exodus the people were
offered to God as living first fruits; at Sinai their
consecration to him as a nation was completed. The typical
significance of the Pentecost is made clear from the events of
the day recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. Acts 2. Just as
the appearance of God on Sinai was the birthday of the Jewish
nation, so was the Pentecost the birthday of the Christian
Church.
Penuel
[[955]Peniel]
Peor
(cleft), a mountain peak in Moab belonging to the Abarim range,
and near Pisgah, to which, after having ascended Pisgah, the
prophet Balaam was conducted by Balak that he might look upon
the whole host of Israel and curse them. (Numbers 23:14,28) In
four passages-- (Numbers 25:18) twice; Numb 31:16; Josh
22:17--Peor occurs as a contraction for Baal-peor. [[956]Baal.)
Perazim
(a breach), Mount, a name which occurs in (Isaiah 28:21)
only--unless the place which it designates is identical with
the Baal-perazim mentioned as the scene of one of David's
victories over the Philistines, which was in the valley of
Rephaim, south of Jerusalem, on the road to Bethlehem.
Peresh
(dung), the son of Machir by his wife Maachah. (1 Chronicles
7:16)
Perez
(breach). The "children of Perez," or Pharez, the son of Judah,
appear to have been a family of importance for many centuries.
(1 Chronicles 27:3; Nehemiah 11:4,6)
Perezuzza
(breaking of Uzzah), (1 Chronicles 13:11) and PEREZ-UZZAH (2
Samuel 6:8) the title which David conferred on the
threshing-floor of Nachon or Cidon, in commemoration of the
sudden death of Uzzah. (B.C. 1042.)
Perfumes
The free use of perfumes was peculiarly grateful to the
Orientals, (Proverbs 27:9) whose olfactory nerves are more than
usually sensitive to the offensive smells engendered by the
heat of their climate. The Hebrews manufactured their perfumes
chiefly from spices imported from Arabia though to a certain
extent also from aromatic plants growing in their own country.
Perfumes entered largely into the temple service, in the two
forms of incense and ointment. (Exodus 30:22-38) Nor were they
less used in private life; not only were they applied to the
person, but to garment, (Psalms 45:8; Song of Solomon 4:11) and
to articles of furniture, such as beds. (Proverbs 7:17)
Perga
(earthy), a city of Pamphylia, (Acts 13:13) situated on the
river Cestius, at a distance of 60 stadia (7 1/2 miles) from
its mouth, and celebrated in antiquity for the worship of
Artemis (Diana).
Pergamos
(in Revised Version Pergamum) (height, elevation), a city of
Mysia, about 3 miles to the north of the river Caicus, and 20
miles from its present mouth. It was the residence of a dynasty
of Greek princes founded after the time of Alexander the Great,
and usually called the Attalic dynasty, from its founder,
Attalus. The sumptuousness of the Attalic princes hall raised
Pergamos to the rank of the first city in Asia as regards
splendor. The city was noted for its vast, library, containing
200,000 volumes. Here were splendid temples of Zeus or Jupiter,
Athene, Apollo and AEsculapius. One of "the seven churches of
Asia" was in Pergamos. (Revelation 1:11; 2:12-17) It is called
"Satan's seat" by John, which some suppose to refer to the
worship of AEsculapius, from the serpent being his
characteristic emblem. Others refer it to the persecutions of
Christians, which was work of Satan. The modern name of the
city is Bergama .
Pergamum
In the Revised Version for Pergamos. (Revelation 1:11) Pergamum
is the form usual in the classic writers.
Perida
(grain, kernel), The children of Perida returned from Babylon
with Zerubbabel. (Nehemiah 7:57) (B.C. before 536.)
Perizzite, The
and Per'izzites (belonging to a village), one of the nations
inhabiting the land of promise before and at the time of its
conquest by Israel. (B.C. 1450.) They are continually mentioned
in the formula so frequently occurring to express the promised
land. (Genesis 15:20; Exodus 3:8,17; 23:23; 33:2; 34:11) The
notice in the book of Judges locates them in the southern part
of the holy land. The signification of the name is not by any
means clear. It possibly meant rustics, dwellers in open,
unwalled villages, which are denoted by a similar word.
Persepolis
mentioned only in 2 Macc. 9:2, was the capital of Persia
proper, and the occasional residence of the Persian court from
the time of Darius Hystaspes, who seems to have been its
founder, to the invasion of Alexander. Its wanton destruction
by that conqueror is well known. Its site is now called the
Chehl-Minar, or Forty Pillars. Here, on a platform hewn out of
the solid rock the sides of which face the four cardinal
points, are the remains of two great palaces, built
respectively by Darius Hytaspes and his son Xerxes, besides a
number of other edifices, chiefly temples. They are of great
extent and magnificence, covering an area of many acres.
Persia
(pure, splended), Per'sians. Persia proper was a tract of no
very large dimensions on the Persian Gulf, which is still known
as Fars or Farsistan, a corruption of the ancient appellation.
This tract was bounded on the west by Susiana or Elam, on the
north by Media on the south by the Persian Gulf and on the east
by Carmania. But the name is more commonly applied, both in
Scripture and by profane authors to the entire tract which came
by degrees to be included within the limits of the Persian
empire. This empire extended at one time from India on the east
to Egypt and Thrace on the west, and included. besides portions
of Europe and Africa, the whole of western Asia between the
Black Sea, the Caucasus, the Caspian and the Jaxartes on the
north, the Arabian desert the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean
on the south. The only passage in Scripture where Persia
designates the tract which has been called above "Persia
proper" is (Ezekiel 38:5) Elsewhere the empire is intended. The
Persians were of the same race as the Medes, both being
branches of the great Aryan stock.
+ Character of the nation .--The Persians were a people of
lively and impressible minds, brave and impetuous in war,
witty, passionate, for Orientals truthful, not without some
spirit of generosity: and of more intellectual capacity than
the generality of Asiatics. In the times anterior to Cyrus
they were noted for the simplicity of their habits, which
offered a strong contrast to the luxuriousness of the Medes;
but from the late of the Median overthrow this simplicity
began to decline. Polygamy was commonly practiced among them.
They were fond of the pleasures of the table. In war they
fought bravely, but without discipline.
+ Religion .--The religion which the Persians brought with
there into Persia proper seems to have been of a very simple
character, differing from natural religion in little except
that it was deeply tainted with Dualism. Like the other
Aryans, the Persians worshipped one supreme God. They had few
temples, and no altars or images.
+ Language .--The Persian language was closely akin to the
Sanskrit, or ancient language of India. Modern Persian is its
degenerate representative, being largely impregnated with
Arabic.
+ History .--The history of Persia begins with the revolt from
the Medes and the accession of Cyrus the Great, B.C. 558.
Cyrus defeated Croesus, and added the Lydian empire to his
dominions. This conquest was followed closely by the
submission of the Greek settlements on the Asiatic coast, and
by the reduction of Caria and Lycia The empire was soon
afterward extended greatly toward the northeast and east. In
B.C. 539 or 538, Babylon was attacked, and after a stout
defence fell into the hands of Cyrus. This victory first
brought the Persians into contact with the Jews. The
conquerors found in Babylon an oppressed race--like
themselves, abhorrers of idols, and professors of a religion
in which to a great extent they could sympathize. This race
Cyrus determined to restore to their own country: which he
did by the remarkable edict recorded in the first chapter of
Ezra. (Ezra 1:2-4) He was slain in an expedition against the
Massagetae or the Derbices, after a reign of twenty-nine
years. Under his son and successor, Cambyses, the conquest of
Egypt took place, B.C. 525. This prince appears to be the
Ahasuerus of (Ezra 4:6) Gomates, Cambyses' successor,
reversed the policy of Cyrus with respect to the Jews, and
forbade by an edict the further building of the temple. (Ezra
4:17-22) He reigned but seven months, and was succeeded by
Darius. Appealed to, in his second year, by the Jews, who
wished to resume the construction of their temple, Darius not
only granted them this privilege, but assisted the work by
grants from his own revenues, whereby the Jews were able to
complete the temple as early as his sixth year. (Ezra 6:1-15)
Darius was succeeded by Xerxes, probably the Ahasuerus of
Esther. Artaxerxes, the son of Xerxes, reigned for forty
years after his death and is beyond doubt the king of that
name who stood in such a friendly relation toward Ezra, (Ezra
7:11-28) and Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 2:1-9) etc. He is the last
of the Persian kings who had any special connection with the
Jews, and the last but one mentioned in Scripture. His
successors were Xerxes II., Sogdianus Darius Nothus,
Artaxerxes Mnemon, Artaxerxes Ochus, and Darius Codomannus,
who is probably the "Darius the Persian" of Nehemiah
(Nehemiah 12:22) These monarchs reigned from B.C. 424 to B.C.
330. The collapse of the empire under the attack of Alexander
the Great took place B.C. 330.
Persis
(a Persian woman), a Christian woman at Rome, (Romans 16:12)
whom St. Paul salutes. (A.D. 55.)
Peruda
The same as [957]Perida. (Ezra 2:55)
Pestilence
[[958]Plague, The, THE]
Peter
(a rock or stone). The original name of this disciple was
Simon, i.e. "hearer." He was the son of a man named Jonas,
(Matthew 16:17; John 1:42; 21:16) and was brought up in his
father's occupation, that of a fisherman. He and his brother
Andrew were partners of John end James, the sons of Zebedee,
who had hired servants. Peter did not live, as a mere laboring
man, in a hut by the seaside, but first at Bethsaida, and
afterward in a house at Capernaum belonging to himself or his
mother-in-law, which must have been rather a large one, since
he received in it not only our Lord and his fellow disciples,
but multitudes who were attracted by the miracles and preaching
of Jesus. Peter was probably between thirty and forty pears of
age at the date of his call. That call was preceded by a
special preparation. Peter and his brother Andrew, together
with their partners James and John, the sons,of Zebedee, were
disciples of John the Baptist when he was first called by our
Lord. The particulars of this are related with graphic
minuteness by St. John. It was upon this occasion that Jesus
gave Peter the name Cephas, a Syriac word answering to the
Greek Peter, and signifying a stone or rock. (John 1:35-42)
This first call led to no immediate change in Peter's external
position. He and his fellow disciples looked henceforth upon
our Lord as their teacher, but were not commanded to follow him
as regular disciples. They returned to Capernaum, where they
pursued their usual business, waiting for a further intimation
of his will. The second call is recorded by the other three
evangelists; the narrative of Luke being apparently
supplementary to the brief and, so to speak official accounts
given by Matthew and Mark. It took place on the Sea of Galilee
near Capernaum, where the four disciples Peter and Andrew,
James and John were fishing. Some time was passed afterward in
attendance upon our Lord's public ministrations in Galilee,
Decapolis, Peraea and Judea. The special designation of Peter
and his eleven fellow disciples took place some time afterward,
when they were set apart as our Lord's immediate attendants.
See (Matthew 10:2-4; Mark 3:13-19) (the most detailed account);
Luke 6:13 They appear to have then first received formally the
name of apostles, and from that time Simon bore publicly, and
as it would seem all but exclusively, the name Peter, which had
hitherto been used rather as a characteristic appellation than
as a proper name. From this time there can be no doubt that
Peter held the first place among the apostles, to whatever
cause his precedence is to be attributed. He is named first in
every list of the apostles; he is generally addressed by our
Lord as their representative; and on the most solemn occasions
he speaks in their name. The distinction which he received, and
it may be his consciousness of ability, energy, zeal and
absolute devotion to Christ's person, seem to have developed a
natural tendency to rashness and forwardness bordering upon
resumption. In his affection and self-confidence Peter ventured
to reject as impossible the announcement of the sufferings and
humiliation which Jesus predicted, and heard the sharp words,
"Get thee behind me, Satan; thou art an offence unto me, for
thou savorest not the things that be of God but those that be
of men." It is remarkable that on other occasions when St.
Peter signalized his faith and devotion, he displayed at the
time, or immediately afterward, a more than usual deficiency in
spiritual discernment and consistency. Toward the close of our
Lord's ministry Peter's characteristics become especially
prominent. At the last supper Peter seems to have been
particularly earnest in the request that the traitor might be
pointed out. After the supper his words drew out the meaning of
the significant act of our Lord in washing his disciples' feet.
Then too it was that he made those repeated protestations of
unalterable fidelity, so soon to be falsified by his miserable
fall. On the morning of the resurrection we have proof that
Peter, though humbled, was not crushed by his fall. He and John
were the first to visit the sepulchre; he was the first who
entered it. We are told by Luke and by Paul that Christ
appeared to him first among the apostles. It is observable;
however, that on that occasion he is called by his original
name, Simon not Peter; the higher designation was not restored
until he had been publicly reinstituted, so to speak, by his
Master. That reinstitution--an event of the very highest
import-took place at the Sea of Galilee. John 21. The first
part of the Acts of the Apostles is occupied by the record of
transactions in nearly all forth as the recognized leader of
the apostles. He is the most prominent person in the greatest
event after the resurrection, when on the day of Pentecost the
Church was first invested with the plenitude of gifts and
power. When the gospel was first preached beyond the precincts
of Judea, he and John were at once sent by the apostles to
confirm the converts at Samaria. Henceforth he remains
prominent, but not exclusively prominent, among the propagators
of the gospel. We have two accounts of the first meeting of
Peter and Paul-- (Acts 9:26; Galatians 1:17,18) This interview
was followed by another event marking Peter's position--a
general apostolical tour of visitation to the churches hitherto
established. (Acts 9:32) The most signal transaction after the
day of Pentecost was the baptism of Cornelius. That was the
crown and consummation of Peter's ministry. The establishment
of a church in great part of Gentile origin at Antioch and the
mission of Barnabas between whose family and Peter there were
the bonds of near intimacy, set the seal upon the work thus
inaugurated by Peter. This transaction was soon followed by the
imprisonment of our apostle. His miraculous deliverance marks
the close of this second great period of his ministry. The
special work assigned to him was completed. From that time we
have no continuous history of him. Peter was probably employed
for the most part in building up and completing the
organization of Christian communities in Palestine and the
adjoining districts. There is, however strong reason to believe
that he visited Corinth at an early period. The name of Peter
as founder or joint founder is not associated with any local
church save the churches of Corinth, Antioch or Rome, by early
ecclesiastical tradition. It may be considered as a settled
point that he did not visit Rome before the last year of his
life; but there is satisfactory evidence that he and Paul were
the founders of the church at Rome, and suffered death in that
city. The time and manner of the apostle's martyrdom are less
certain. According to the early writers, he suffered at or
about the same time with Paul, and in the Neronian persecution,
A.D. 67,68. All agree that he was crucified. Origen says that
Peter felt himself to be unworthy to be put to death in the
same manner as his Master, and was therefore, at his own
request, crucified with his head downward. The apostle is said
to have employed interpreters. Of far more importance is the
statement that Mark wrote his Gospel under the teaching of
Peter, or that he embodied in that Gospel the substance of our
apostle's oral instructions. [[959]Mark, Gospel Of] The only
written documents which Peter has left are the First Epistle--
about which no doubt has ever been entertained in the Church--
and the Second, which has been a subject of earnest
controversy.
Peter, First Epistle Of
The external evidence of authenticity of this epistle is of the
strongest kind and the internal is equally strong. It was
addressed to the churches of Asia Minor which had for the most
part been founded by Paul and his companions, Supposing it to
have been written at Babylon, (1 Peter 5:13) it ia a probable
conjecture that Silvanus, By whom it was transmitted to those
churches, had joined Peter after a tour of visitation, and that
his account of the condition of the Christians in those
districts determined the apostle to write the epistle. (On the
question of this epistle having been written at Babylon
commentators differ. "Some refer it to the famous Babylon in
Asia, which after its destruction was still inhabited by a
Jewish colony; others refer it to Babylon in Egypt, now called
Old Cairo; still others understand it mystically of heathen
Rome, in which sense 'Babylon' is certainly used in the
Apocalypse of John."--Schaff.) The objects of the epistle
were--
+ To comfort and strengthen the Christians in a season of
severe trial.
+ To enforce the practical and spiritual duties involved in
their calling
+ To warn them against special temptations attached to their
position.
+ To remove all doubt as to the soundness and completeness of
the religious system which they had already received. Such an
attestation was especially needed by the Hebrew Christians,
who were to appeal from Paul's authority to that of the elder
apostles, and above all to that of Peter. The last, which is
perhaps the very principal object, is kept in view throughout
the epistle, and is distinctly stated (1 Peter 5:12) The
harmony of such teaching with that of Paul is sufficiently
obvious. Peter belongs to the school, or to speak more
correctly, is the leader of the school, which at once
vindicates the unity of the law and the gospel, and puts the
superiority of the latter on its true basis-that of spiritual
development. The date of this epistle is uncertain, but
Alford believes it to have been written between A.D. 63 and
67.
Peter, Second Epistle Of
The following is a brief outline of the contents of this
epistle: The customary opening salutation is followed by an
enumeration of Christian blessings and exhortation to Christian
duties. (2 Peter 1:1-13) Referring then to his approaching
death, the apostle assigns as grounds of assurance for
believers his own personal testimony as eye-witness of the
transfiguration and the sure word of prophecy--that is the
testimony of the Holy Ghost. vs. (2 Peter 1:14-21) The danger
of being misled by false prophets is dwelt upon with great
earnestness throughout the second chapter, which is almost
identical in language and subject with the Epistle of Jude. The
overthrow of all opponents of Christian truth is predicted in
connection with prophecies touching the second advent of
Christ, the destruction of the world by fire, and the promise
of new heavens and a new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness.
ch. 3. This epistle of Peter presents questions of difficulty.
Doubts as to its genuineness were entertained by the early
Church; in the time of Eusebius it was reckoned among the
disputed books, and was not formally admitted into the canon
until the year 393, at the Council of Hippo. These
difficulties, however, are insufficient to justify more than
hesitation in admitting its,genuineness. A majority of names
may be quoted in support of the genuineness and authenticity of
this epistle. (It is very uncertain as to the time when it was
written. It was written near the close of Peter's life--perhaps
about A.D. 68--from Rome or somewhere on the journey thither
from the East--Alford .)
Pethahiah
(freed by Jehovah).
+ A priest, over the nineteenth course in the reign of David.
(1 Chronicles 24:16) (B.C. 1020.)
+ A Levite in the time of Ezra, who had married a foreign wife.
(Ezra 10:23) He is probably the same who is mentioned in
(Nehemiah 9:5) (B.C. 458.)
+ The son of Meshezabeel, and descendant of Zerah. (Nehemiah
11:24) (B.C. 446.)
Pethor
(soothsayer), a town of Mesopotamia, where Balaam resided, and
situated "upon the river," possibly the Euphrates. (Numbers
22:5; 23:4) Its position is wholly unknown.
Pethuel
(vision of God), the father of the prophet Joel. (Joel 1:1)
(B.C. before 800.)
Peulthai
(my wages) properly Peullethai, the eighth son of Obed-edom. (1
Chronicles 26:5) (B.C. 1020.)
Top
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Table of
Contents Phalec
(division). Peleg the son of Eber. (Luke 3:35)
Phallu
(distinguished), Pallu the son of Reuben is so called in the
Authorized Version of (Genesis 46:9) (B.C. about 1706.)
Phalti
(my deliverance), the son of Laish of Gallim, to whom Saul gave
Michal in marriage after his mad jealousy had driven David
forth as an outlaw. (1 Samuel 25:4-1) In (2 Samuel 3:15) he is
called [960]Phaltiel. With the exception of this brief mention
of his name, and the touching little episode in (2 Samuel 3:16)
nothing more is heard of Phalti. (B.C. 1061.)
Phaltiel
The same as Phalti. (2 Samuel 5:15)
Phanuel
(face of God), the father of Anna, the prophetess of the tribe
of Aser. (Luke 2:36) (B.C. about 80.)
Pharaoh
the common title of the native kings of Egypt in the Bible,
corresponding to P-ra or Ph-ra "the sun," of the hieroglyphics.
Brugsch, Ebers and other modern Egyptologists define it to mean
'the great house," which would correspond to our "the Sublime
Porte." As several kings are mentioned only by the title
"Pharaoh" in the Bible, it is important to endeavor to
discriminate them:
+ The Pharaoh of Abraham . (Genesis 12:15)--At the time at
which the patriarch went into Egypt, it is generally held
that the country, or at least lower Egypt, was ruled by the
Shepherd kings, of whom the first and moat powerful line was
the fifteenth dynasty, the undoubted territories of which
would be first entered by one coming from the east. The date
at which Abraham visited Egypt was about B.C. 2081, which
would accord with the time of Salatis the head of the
fifteenth dynasty, according to our reckoning.
+ The Pharoah of Joseph . (Genesis 41:1) ...--One of the
Shepherd kings perhaps Apophis, who belonged to the fifteenth
dynasty. He appears to have reigned from Joseph's appointment
(or perhaps somewhat earlier) until Jacob's death, a period
of at least twenty-six years, from about B.C. 1876 to 1850
and to have been the fifth or sixth king of the fifteenth
dynasty.
+ The Pharoah of the oppression . (Exodus 1:8)--The first
Persecutor of the Israelites may be distinguished as the
Pharaoh of the oppression, from the second, the Pharoah of
the exodus especially as he commenced and probably long
carried on the persecution. The general view is that he was
an Egyptian. One class of Egyptologists think that Amosis
(Ahmes), the first sovereign of the eighteenth dynasty, is
the Pharaoh of the oppression; but Brugsch and others
identify him with Rameses II. (the Sesostris of the Greeks),
of the nineteenth dynasty. (B.C. 1340.)
+ The Pharoah of the exodus . (Exodus 5:1)--Either Thothmes
III., as Wilkinson, or Menephthah son of Rameses II., whom
Brugsch thinks was probably the Pharaoh of the exodus, who
with his army pursued the Israelites and were overwhelmed in
the Red Sea. "The events which form the lamentable close of
his rule over Egypt are Passed over by the monuments (very
naturally) with perfect silence. The dumb tumults covers the
misfortune: which was suffered, for the record of these
events was inseparably connected with the humiliating
confession of a divine visitation, to which a patriotic
writer at the court of Pharaoh would hardly have brought his
mind." The table on page 186 gives some of the latest
opinions.
+ Pharaoh, father-in-law of Mered .--In the genealogies of the
tribe of Judah, mention is made of the daughter of a Pharaoh
married to an Israelite--" Bithiah the daughter of Pharaoh.
which Mered took." (1 Chronicles 4:18)
+ Pharaoh, brother-in-law of Hadad the Edomite .--This king
gave Haadad. as his wife, the sister of his own wife,
Tahpenes. (1 Kings 11:18-20)
+ Pharaoh, father-in-law of Solomon .--The mention that the
queen was brought into the city of David while Solomon's
house and the temple and the city wall were building shows
that the marriage took place not later than the eleventh year
of the king, when the temple was finished, having been
commenced in the Pharaoh led an expedition into Palestine. (1
Kings 9:16)
+ Pharaoh, the opponent of Sennacherib .--This Pharaoh, (Isaiah
36:6) can only be the Sethos whom Herodotus mentions as the
opponent of Sennacherib and who may reasonably be supposed to
be the Zet of Manetho.
+ Pharoah-necho .--The first mention in the Bible of a proper
name with the title Pharaoh is the case of Pharaoh-necho, who
is also called Necho simply. This king was of the Saite
twenty-sixth dynasty, of which Manetho makes him either the
fifth or the sixth ruler. Herodotus calls him Nekos, and
assigns to him a reign of sixteen years, which is confirmed
by the monuments. He seems to have been an enterprising king,
as he is related to have attempted to complete the canal
connecting the Red Sea with the Nile, and to have sent an
expedition of Phoenicians to circumnavigate Africa, which was
successfully accomplished. At the commencement of his reign
B.C. 610, he made war against the king of Assyria, and, being
encountered on his way by Josiah, defeated and slew the king
of Judah at Megiddo. (2 Kings 23:29,30; 2 Chronicles
35:20-24) Necho seems to have soon returned to Egypt. Perhaps
he was on his way thither when he deposed Jehoahaz. The army
was probably posted at Carchemish, and was there defeated by
Nebuchadnezzar in the fourth year of Necho, B.C. 607, that
king not being, as it seems, then at its head. (Jeremiah
46:1,2,6,10) This battle led to the loss of all the Asiatic
dominions of Egypt. (2 Kings 24:7)
+ Pharaoh-hophra .--The next king of Egypt mentioned in the
Bible is Pharaoh-hophra, the second successor of Necho, from
whom he was separated by the six-years reign of Psammetichus
II. He came to the throne about B.C. 589, and ruled nineteen
years. Herodotus who calls him Apries, makes him son of
Psammetichus II., whom he calls Psammis, and great-grandson
of Psammetichus I. In the Bible it is related that Zedekiah,
the last king of Judah was aided by a Pharaoh against
Nebuchadnezzar, in fulfillment of it treaty, and that an army
came out of Egypt, so that the Chaldeans were obliged to
raise the siege of Jerusalem. The city was first besieged in
the ninth year of Zedekiah B.C. 590, and was captured in his
eleventh year, B.C. 588. It was evidently continuously
invested for a length of time before was taken, so that it is
most probable that Pharaoh's expedition took place during 590
or 589. The Egyptian army returned without effecting its
purpose. (Jeremiah 27:5-8; Ezekiel 17:11-18) comp. 2Kin
25:1-4 No subsequent Pharaoh is mentioned in Scripture, but
there are predictions doubtless referring to the misfortunes
of later princes until the second Persian conquest, when the
prophecy, "There shall be no more a prince of the land of
Egypt," (Ezekiel 30:13) was fulfilled. (In the summer of 1881
a large number of the mummies of the Pharaohs were found in a
tomb near Thebes--among them Raskenen, of the seventeenth
dynasty, Ahmes I., founder of the eighteenth dynasty,
Thothmes I,II, and III., and Rameses I. It was first thought
that Rameses II, of the nineteenth dynasty, was there, But
this was found to be a mistake. A group of coffins belonging
to the twenty-first dynasty has been found, and it is
probable that we will learn not a little about the early
Pharaohs, especially from the inscriptions on their
shrouds.--ED.)
Pharaoh, The Wife Of
The wife of one Pharaoh, the king who received Hadad the
Edomite, is mentioned in Scripture. She is called "queen," and
her name, Tahpenes, is given. [[961]Tahpenes; [962]Pharaoh, 6]
Pharaohs Daughter
Three Egyptian princesses, daughters of Pharaohs, are mentioned
in the Bible:--
+ The preserver of Moses, daughter of the Pharaoh who first
oppressed the Israelites. (Exodus 2:6-10) Osborn thinks her
name was Thouoris, daughter of Rameses II, others that her
name was Merrhis. (B.C. 1531.)
+ Bithiah wife of Mered, an Israelite. daughter of a Pharaoh of
an uncertain age, probably of about the time of the exodus.
(1 Chronicles 4:18) [[963]Pharaoh, No. 5]
+ A wife of Solomon. (1 Kings 3:1; 7:8; 8:24) [[964]Pharaoh, 7]
(B.C.1000.)
Phares, Pharez Or Perez
The son of Judah. (Matthew 1:3; Luke 3:33)
Pharez
(Perez, (1 Chronicles 27:3) Phares, (Matthew 1:3; Luke 3:33) 1
Esd. 5:6), twin son, with Zarah or Zerah, of Judah and Tamer
his daughter-in-law. (B.C. 1730.) The circumstances of his
birth are detailed in Gen. 38. Pharez occupied the rank of
Judah's second son, and from two of his sons sprang two new
chief houses, those of the Hezronites and Hamulites. From
Hezron's second son Ram, or Aram, sprang David and the kings of
Judah, and eventually Jesus Christ. In the reign of David the
house of Pharez seems to have been eminently distinguished.
Pharisees
a religious party or school among the Jews at the time of
Christ, so called from perishin, the Aramaic form of the Hebrew
word perushim, "separated." The chief sects among the Jews were
the Pharisees, the Sadducees and the Essenes, who may be
described respectively as the Formalists, the Freethinkers and
the Puritans. A knowledge of the opinions and practices of the
Pharisees at the time of Christ is of great importance for
entering deeply into the genius of the Christian religion. A
cursory perusal of the Gospels is sufficient to show that
Christ's teaching was in some respects thoroughly antagonistic
to theirs. He denounced them in the bitterest language; see
(Matthew 15:7,8; 23:5,13,14,15,23; Mark 7:6; Luke 11:42-44) and
compare (Mark 7:1-5; 11:29; 12:19,20; Luke 6:28,37-42) To
understand the Pharisees is by contrast an aid toward
understanding the spirit of uncorrupted Christianity.
+ The fundamental principle all of the of the Pharisees, common
to them with all orthodox modern Jews, is that by the side of
the written law regarded as a summary of the principles and
general laws of the Hebrew people there was on oral law to
complete and to explain the written law, given to Moses on
Mount Sinai and transmitted by him by word of mouth. The
first portion of the Talmud, called the Mishna or "second
law," contains this oral law. It is a digest of the Jewish
traditions and a compendium of the whole ritual law, and it
came at length to be esteemed far above the sacred text.
+ While it was the aim of Jesus to call men to the law of God
itself as the supreme guide of life, the Pharisees, upon the
Pretence of maintaining it intact, multiplied minute precepts
and distinctions to such an extent that the whole life of the
Israelite was hemmed in and burdened on every side by
instructions so numerous and trifling that the law was almost
if not wholly lost sight of. These "traditions" as they were
called, had long been gradually accumulating. Of the trifling
character of these regulations innumerable instances are to
be found in the Mishna. Such were their washings before they
could eat bread, and the special minuteness with which the
forms of this washing were prescribed; their bathing when
they returned from the market; their washing of cups, pots,
brazen vessels, etc.; their fastings twice in the week, (Luke
18:12) were their tithing; (Matthew 23:23) and such, finally,
were those minute and vexatious extensions of the law of the
Sabbath, which must have converted God's gracious ordinance
of the Sabbath's rest into a burden and a pain. (Matthew
12:1-13; Mark 3:1-6; Luke 18:10-17)
+ It was a leading aim of the Redeemer to teach men that true
piety consisted not in forms, but in substance, not in
outward observances, but in an inward spirit. The whole
system of Pharisaic piety led to exactly opposite
conclusions. The lowliness of piety was, according to the
teaching of Jesus, an inseparable concomitant of its reality;
but the Pharisees sought mainly to attract the attention and
to excite the admiration of men. (Matthew 6:2,6,16; 23:5,6;
Luke 14:7) Indeed the whole spirit of their religion was
summed up not in confession of sin and in humility, but in a
proud self righteousness at variance with any true conception
of man's relation to either God or his fellow creatures.
+ With all their pretences to piety they were in reality
avaricious, sensual and dissolute. (Matthew 23:25; John 13:7)
They looked with contempt upon every nation but their own.
(Luke 10:29) Finally, instead of endeavoring to fulfill the
great end of the dispensation whose truths they professed to
teach, and thus bringing men to the Hope of Israel, they
devoted their energies to making converts to their own narrow
views, who with all the zeal of proselytes were more
exclusive and more bitterly opposed to the truth than they
were themselves. (Matthew 22:15)
+ The Pharisees at an early day secured the popular favor and
thereby acquired considerable political influence. This
influence was greatly increased by the extension of the
Pharisees over the whole land and the majority which they
obtained in the Sanhedrin. Their number reached more than six
thousand under the Herods. Many of them must have suffered
death for political agitation. In the time of Christ they
were divided doctrinally into several schools, among which
those of Hillel and Shammai were most noted.--McClintock and
Strong .
+ One of the fundamental doctrines of the Pharisees was a
belief in a future state . They appear to have believed in a
resurrection of the dead, very much in the same sense: as the
early Christians. They also believed in "a divine Providence
acting side by side with the free will of man."--Schaff.
+ It is proper to add that it would be a great mistake to
suppose that the Pharisees were wealthy and luxurious much
more that they had degenerated into the vices which were
imputed to some of the Roman popes and cardinals during the
two hundred years preceding the Reformation. Josephus
compared the Pharisees to the sect of the Stoics. He says
that they lived frugally, in no respect giving in to luxury.
We are not to suppose that there were not many individuals
among them who were upright and pure, for there were such men
as Nicodemus, Gamaliel, Joseph of Arimathea and Paul.
Pharosh
(Ezra 8:3) [See PAROSH]
Pharpar
(swift), the second of the "two rivers of Damascus"--Abana and
Pharpar--alluded to by Naaman. (2 Kings 5:18) The two principal
streams in the district of Damascus are the Barada and the
Awaj, the former being the Abana and the latter the Pharpur.
The Awaj rises on the southeast slopes of Hermon, and flows
into the most southerly of the three lakes or swamps of
Damascus.
Pharzites. The
the descendants of Parez the son of Judah. (Numbers 26:20)
Phaseah
(Nehemiah 7:51) [[965]Paseah, 2]
Phaselis
a town on the coast of Asia Minor, on the confines of Lycia and
Pamphylia, and consequently ascribed by the ancient writers
sometimes to one and sometimes to the other. 1 Macc. 15:23.
Phebe
[[966]Phoebe]
Phenice
(Acts 27:12) (more properly Phoenix, as it is translated in the
Revised Version), the name of a haven in Crete on the south
coast. The name was no doubt derived from the Greek word for
the palm tree, which Theophrastus says was indigenous in the
island. It is the modern Lutro . [See [967]Phoenice, Phoenicia;
PHOENICIA]
Phichol
(strong), chief captain of the army of Abimelech, king of the
Philistines of Gerar in the days of both Abraham, (Genesis
21:22,32) and Isaac. (Genesis 28:26) (B.C. 1900.)
Philadelphia
strictly Philadelphi'a (brotherly love), a town on the confines
of Lydia and Phrygia Catacecaumene, 25 southeast of Sardis, and
built by Attalus II., king of Pergamos, who died B.C. 138. It
was situated on the lower slopes of Tmolus, and is still
represented by a town called Allah-shehr (city of God). Its
elevation is 952 feet above the sea. The original population of
Philadelphia. Seems to have been Macedonian; but there was, as
appears from (Leviticus 3:9) a synagogue of Hellenizing Jews
there, as well as a Christian church. (It was the seat of one
of "the seven churches of Asia.") The locality was subject to
constant earthquakes, which in the time of Strabo rendered even
the town walls of Philadelphia unsafe. The expense of
reparation was constant, and hence perhaps the poverty of the
members of the church. (Revelation 3:8) (The church was highly
commended.) (Revelation 3:7-13) Even Gibbon bears the following
well-known testimony to the truth of the prophecy, "Because
thou hast kept the word of my patience, I also will keep thee
in the hour of temptation": "At a distance from the sea,
forgotten by the (Greek) emperor encompassed, all sides by the
Turks, her valiant citizens defended their religion and freedom
above fourscore years. Among the Greek colonies and churches of
Asia, Philadelphia is still erect, a column in a scene of
ruins." "The modern town (Allah-shehr, city of God), although
spacious, containing 3000 houses and 10,000 inhabitants, is
badly built; the dwellings are mean and the streets filthy. The
inhabitants are mostly Turks. A few ruins are found, including
remains of a wall and about twenty-five churches. In one place
are four strong marble pillars, which once supported the dome
of a church. One of the old mosques is believed by the native
Christians to have been the church in which assembled the
primitive Christians addressed in the Apocalypse." Whitney's
Bible Geography.)
Philemon
the name of the Christian to whom Paul addressed his epistle in
behalf of Onesimus. He was a native probably of Colosse, or at
all events lived in that city when the apostle wrote to him:
first, because Onesimus was a Colossian, (Colossians 4:9) and
secondly because Archippus was a Colossian, (Colossians 4:17)
whom Paul associates with Philemon at the beginning of his
letter. (Philemon 1:1,2) It is related that Philemon became
bishop of Colosse, and died as a martyr under Nero. It is
evident from the letter to him that Philemon was a man of
property and influence, since he is represented as the head of
a numerous household, and as exercising an expensive liberality
toward his friends and the poor in general. He was indebted to
the apostle Paul as the medium of his personal participation in
the gospel. It is not certain under what circumstances they
became known to each other. It is evident that on becoming a
disciple he gave no common proof of the sincerity and power of
his faith. His character as shadowed forth in the epistle to
him, is one of the noblest which the sacred record makes known
to us.
Philemon, The Epistle Of Paul To
is one of the letters which the apostle wrote during his first
captivity at Rome A.D. 63 or early in A.D. 64. Nothing is
wanted to confirm the genuineness of the epistle: the external
testimony is unimpeachable; nor does the epistle itself offer
anything to conflict with this decision. The occasion of the
letter was that Onesimus, a slave of Philemon, had run away
from him to Rome, either desiring liberty or, as some suppose,
having committed theft. (Philemon 1:18) Here he was converted
under the instrumentality of Paul. The latter; intimately
connected with the master and the servant, was naturally
anxious to effect a reconciliation between them. He used his
influence with Onesimus, ver. 12, to induce him to return to
Colosse and place himself again at the disposal of his master.
On his departure, Paul put into his hand this letter as
evidence that Onesirnus was a true and approved disciple of
Christ, and entitled as such to received, not as a servant but
above a servant, as a brother in the faith. The Epistle to
Philemon has one peculiar feature--its aesthetical character it
may be termed--which distinguishes it from all the other
epistles. The writer had peculiar difticulties to overcame; but
Paul, it is confessed, has shown a degree of self-denial and a
fact in dealing with them which in being equal to the occasion
could hardly be greater.
Philetus
(beloved) was possibly a disciple of Hymenaeus, with whom he is
associated in (2 Timothy 2:17) and who is named without him in
an earlier epistle. (1 Timothy 1:20) (A.D. 68-64) Thep appear
to have been persons who believed the Scripture of the Old
Testament, but misinterpreted them, allegorizing away the
doctrine of the resurrection and resolving it all into figure
and metaphor. The delivering over unto Satan. seems to have
been a form of excommunication declaring the person reduced to
the state of a heathen; and in the apostolic age it was
accompanied with supernatural or miraculous effects upon the
bodies of the persons so delivered.
Philip
(lover of horses) the apostle was of Bethsaida, the city of
Andrew and Peter, (John 1:44) and apparently was among the
Galilean peasants of that district who flocked to hear the
preaching of the Baptist. The manner in which St. John speaks
of him indicates a previous friendship with the sons of Jona
and Zebedee, and a consequent participation in their messianic
hopes. The close union of the two in John 6 and 12 suggests
that he may have owed to Andrew the first tidings that the hope
had been fulfilled. The statement that Jesus found him (John
1:43) implies a previous seeking. In the lists of the twelve
apostles, in the Synoptic Gospel, his name is as uniformly at
the head of the second group of four as the name of Peter is at
that of the first, (Matthew 10:3; Mark 5:18; Luke 6:14) and the
facts recorded by St. John give the reason of this priority.
Philip apparently was among the first company of disciples who
were with the Lord at the commencement of his ministry at the
marriage at Cana, on his first appearance as a prophet in
Jerusalem, John 2. The first three Gospels tell us nothing more
of him individually. St.John with his characteristic fullness
of personal reminiscences, records a few significant
utterances. (John 6:5-9; 12:20-22; 14:8) No other fact
connected with the name of Philip is recorded in the Gospels.
He is among the company of disciples at Jerusalem after the
ascension (Acts 1:13) and on the day of Pentecost. After this
all is uncertain and apocryphal, According tradition he
preached in Phrygia, and died at Hierapolis.
Philip The Evangelist
is first mentioned in the account of the dispute between the
Hebrew and Hellenistic disciples in Acts 6. He is one of the
deacons appointed to superintend the daily distribution of food
and alms, and so to remove all suspicion of partiality. The
persecution of which Saul was the leader must have stopped the
"daily ministrations" of the Church. The teachers who had been
most prominent were compelled to take flight, and Philip was
among them. It is noticeable that the city of Samaria, is the
first scene of his activity. Acts 8. He is the precursor of St.
Paul in his work, as Stephen had been in his teaching. The
scene which brings Philip and Simon the sorcerer into contact
with each other, (Acts 8:9-13) which the magician has to
acknowledge a power over nature greater than his own, is
interesting. This step is followed by another. On the road from
Jerusalem to Gaza he meets the Ethiopian eunuch. (Acts 8:26)
ff. The History that follows is interesting as one of the few
records in the New Testament of the process of individual
conversion. A brief sentence tells us that Philip continued his
work as a preacher at Azotus (Ashdod) and among the other
cities that had formerly belonged to the Philistines, and,
following the coast-line, came to Caesarea. Then for a long
period--not less than eighteen or nineteen years--we lose sight
of him. The last glimpse of him in the New Testament is in the
account of St. Paul's journey to Jerusalem. It is to his house
as to one well known to them, that St. Paul and his companions
turn for shelter. He has four daughters, who possess the gift
of prophetic utterance and who apparently give themselves to
the work of teaching instead of entering on the life of home.
(Acts 21:8,9) He is visited by the prophets and elders of
Jerusalem. One tradition places the scene of his death at
Hierapolis in Phrygia. According to another, he died bishop of
Tralles. The house in which he and-his daughters had lived was
pointed out to travellers in the time of Jerome.
Philippi
(named from Philip of Macedonia), a city of Macedonia about
nine miles from the sea, to the northwest of the island of
Thasos which is twelve miles distant from its port Neapolis,
the modern Kavalla . It is situated in a plain between the
ranges of Pangaeus and Haemus. The Philippi which St. Paul
visited was a Roman colony founded by Augustus after the famous
battle of Philippi, fought here between Antony and Octavius and
Brutus and Cassius, B.C. 42. The remains which strew the ground
near the modern Turkish village Bereketli are no doubt derived
from that city. The original town, built by Philip of
Macedonia, was probably not exactly on the same site. Philip,
when he acquired possession of the site, found there a town
named Datus or Datum, which was probably in its origin a
factory of the Phoenicians, who were the first that worked the
gold-mines in the mountains here, as in the neighboring Thasos.
The proximity of the goldmines was of course the origin of so
large a city as Philippi, but the plain in which it lies is of
extraordinary fertility. The position, too, was on the main
road from Rome to Asia, the Via Egnatia, which from
Thessalonica to Constantinople followed the same course as the
existing post-road. On St. Paul's visits to Philippi, see the
following article. At Philippi the gospel was first preached in
Europe. Lydia was the first convert. Here too Paul and Silas
were imprisoned. (Acts 16:23) The Philippians sent
contributions to Paul to relieve his temporal wants.
Philippians, Epistle To The
was St. Paul from Rome in A.D. 62 or 63. St. Paul's connection
with Philippi was of a peculiar character, which gave rise to
the writing of this epistle. St. Paul entered its walls A.D.
52. (Acts 16:18) There, at a greater distance from Jerusalem
than any apostle had yet penetrated, the long-restrained energy
of St, Paul was again employed in laying the foundation of a
Christian church, Philippi was endeared to St. Paul not only by
the hospitality of Lydia, the deep sympathy of the converts,
and the remarkable miracle which set a seal on his preaching,
but, also by the successful exercise of his missionary activity
after a long suspense, and by the happy consequences of his
undaunted endurance of ignominies which remained in his memory,
(Philemon 1:30) after the long interval of eleven years.
Leaving Timothy and Luke to watch over the infant church, Paul
and Silas went to Thessalonica, (1 Thessalonians 2:2) whither
they were followed by the alms of the Philippians, (Philemon
4:16) and thence southward. After the lapse of five years,
spent chiefly at Corinth and Ephesus, St. Paul passed through
Macedonia, A.D. 57, on his way to Greece, and probably visited
Philippi for the second time, and was there joined by Timothy.
He wrote at Philippi his second Epistle to the Corinthians. On
returning from Greece, (Acts 20:4) he again found a refuge
among his faithful Philippians, where he spent some days at
Easter, A.D. 58, with St. Luke, who accompanied him when he
sailed from Neapolis. Once more, in his Roman captivity, A.D.
62, their care of him revived-again. They sent Epaphroditus
bearing their alms for the apostle's support, and ready also to
tender his personal service. (Philemon 2:25) St. Paul's aim in
writing is plainly this: while acknowledging the alms of the
Philippians and the personal services of their messenger, to
give them some information respecting his own condition, and
some advice respecting theirs. Strangely full of joy and
thanksgiving amidst adversity, like the apostle's midnight hymn
from the depth of his Philippian dungeon, this epistle went
forth from his prison at Rome. In most other epistles he writes
with a sustained effort to instruct, or with sorrow, or with
indignation; he is striving to supply imperfect or to correct
erroneous teaching, to put down scandalous impurity or to
schism in the church which he addresses. But in this epistle,
though he knew the Philippians intimately and was not blind to
the faults and tendencies to fault of some of them, yet he
mentions no evil so characteristic of the whole Church as to
call for general censure on his part or amendment on theirs. Of
all his epistles to churches, none has so little of an official
character as this.
Philistia
(Heb. Pelesheth) (land of sojourners). The word thus translated
(in) (Psalms 60:8; 87:4; 108:9) is in the original identical
with that elsewhere rendered Palestine, which always means land
of the Philistines. (Philistia was the plain on the southwest
coast of Palestine. It was 40 miles long on the coast of the
Mediterranean between Gerar and Joppa, and 10 miles wide at the
northern end and 20 at the southern.--ED.) This plain has been
in all ages remarkable for the extreme richness of its soil. It
was also adapted to the growth of military power; for while the
itself permitted. the use of war-chariots, which were the chief
arm of offence, the occasional elevations which rise out of it
offered secure sites for towns and strongholds. It was,
moreover, a commercial country: from its position it must have
been at all times the great thoroughfare between Phoenicia and
Syria in the north and Egypt and Arabia in the south.
Philistines
(immigrants), The origin of the Philistines is nowhere
expressly stated in the Bible; but as the prophets describe
them as "the Philistines-from Caphtor," (Amos 9:7) and "the
remnant of the maritime district of Caphtor" (Jeremiah 47:4) it
is prima facie probable that they were the Caphtorim which came
out of Caphtor" who expelled the Avim from their territory and
occupied it; in their place, (2:23) and that these again were
the Caphtorim mentioned in the Mosaic genealogical table among
the descendants of Mizraim. (Genesis 10:14) It has been
generally assumed that Caphtor represents Crete, and that the
Philistines migrated from that island, either directly or
through Egypt, into Palestine. But the name Caphtor is more
probably identified with the Egyptian Coptos. [[968]Caphtor,
Caphtorim] History.--The Philistines must have settled in the
land of Canaan before the time of Abraham; for they are noticed
in his day as a pastoral tribe in the neighborhood of Gerur.
(Genesis 21:32,34; 26:1,8) Between the times of Abraham and
Joshua the Philistines had changed their quarters, and had
advanced northward into the plain of Philistia. The Philistines
had at an early period attained proficiency in the arts of
peace. Their wealth was abundant, (Judges 16:5,19) and they
appear in all respects to have been a prosperous people.
Possessed of such elements of power, they had attained in the
time of the judges an important position among eastern nations.
About B.C. 1200 we find them engaged in successful war with the
Sidonians. Justin xviii. 3. The territory of the Philistines
having been once occupied by the Canaanites, formed a portion
of the promised land, and was assigned the tribe of Judah.
(Joshua 15:2,12,45-47) No portion of it, however, was conquered
in the lifetime of Joshua, (Joshua 13:2) and even after his
death no permanent conquest was effected, (Judges 3:3) though
we are informed that the three cities of Gaza, Ashkelon and
Ekron were taken. (Judges 1:18) The Philistines soon recovered
these, and commenced an aggressive policy against the
Israelites, by which they gained a complete ascendancy over
them. Individual heroes were raised up from time to time, such
as Shamgar the son of Anath, (Judges 3:31) and still more
Samson, Judg 13-16, but neither of these men succeeded in
permanently throwing off the yoke. The Israelites attributed
their past weakness to their want, of unity, and they desired a
king, with the special object of leading them against the foe.
(1 Samuel 8:20) Saul threw off the yoke; and the Philistines
were defeated with great slaughter at Geba. (1 Samuel 13:3)
They made no attempt to regain their supremacy for about
twenty-five years, and the scene of the next contest shows the
altered strength of the two parties. It was no longer in the
central country, but in a ravine leading down to the Philistine
plain, the valley of Elah, the position of which is about 14
miles southwest of Jerusalem. On this occasion the prowess of
young David secured success to Israel, and the foe was pursued
to the gates of Gath and Ekron. (1 Samuel 17:1) ... The power
of the Philistines was, however, still intact on their own
territory. The border warfare was continued. The scene of the
next conflict was far to the north, in the valley of Esdraelon.
The battle on this occasion proved disastrous to the
Israelites; Saul himself perished, and the Philistines
penetrated across the Jordan and occupied the, forsaken cities.
(1 Samuel 31:1-7) On the appointment of David to be king, he
twice attacked them, and on each occasion with signal success,
in the first case capturing their images, in the second
pursuing them "from Geba until thou come to Gazer." (2 Samuel
5:17-25; 1 Chronicles 14:8-16) Henceforth the Israelites appear
as the aggressors. About seven years after the defeat at
Rephaim, David, who had now consolidated his power, attacked
them on their own soil end took Gath with its dependencies. The
whole of Philistine was included in Solomon's empire. Later
when the Philistines, joined by the Syrians and Assyrians, made
war on the kingdom of Israel, Hezekiah formed an alliance with
the Egyptians, as a counterpoise to the Assyrians, and the
possession of Philistia became henceforth the turning-point of
the struggle between the two great empires of the East. The
Assyrians under Tartan, the general of Sargon, made an
expedition against Egypt, and took Ashdod, as the key of that
country. (Isaiah 20:1,4,5) Under Senacherib, Philistia was
again the scene of important operations. The Assyrian supremacy
was restored by Esarhaddon, and it seems probable that the
Assyrians retained their hold on Ashdod until its capture,
after a long siege, by Psammetichus. It was about this time
that Philistia was traversed by vast Scythian horde on their
way to Egypt. The Egyptian ascendancy was not as yet
re-established, for we find the next king, Necho, compelled to
besiege Gaza on his return from the battle of Megiddo. After
the death of Necho the contest was renewed between the
Egyptians and the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar, and the
result was specially disastrous to the Philistines. The "old
hatred" that the Philistines bore to the Jews was exhibited in
acts of hostility at the time of the Babylonish captivity,
(Ezekiel 25:15-17) but on the return this was somewhat abated,
for some of the Jews married Philistine women, to the great
scandal of their rulers. (Nehemiah 13:23,24) From this time the
history of Philistia is absorbed in the struggles of the
neighboring kingdoms. The latest notices of the Philistines as
a nation occur in 1 Macc. 3-5. Institutions, religion, etc
.--With regard to the institutions of the Philistines our
information is very scanty, The five chief cities had, as early
as the days of Joshua, constituted themselves into a
confederacy, restricted however, in all probability, to matters
of offence and defence. Each was under the government of a
prince, (Joshua 13:3; Judges 3:3) etc.; (1 Samuel 18:30; 29:6)
and each possessed its own territory. The Philistines appear to
have been deeply imbued with superstition: they carried their
idols with them on their campaigns, (2 Samuel 5:21) and
proclaimed their victories in their presence. (1 Samuel 31:9)
The gods whom they chiefly worshipped were Dagon, (Judges
16:23; 1 Samuel 5:3-5; 1 Chronicles 10:10) 1Macc. 10:83,
Ashtaroth, (1 Samuel 31:10) Herod. I. 105, and Baalzebub. (2
Kings 1:2-6)
Philologus
a Christian at Rome to whom St. Paul sends his salutation.
(Romans 18:15)
Philosophy
It is the object of the following article to give some account
(I.) of that development of thought among the Jews which
answered to the philosophy of the West; (II.) of the systematic
progress of Greek philosophy as forming a complete whole; and
(III.) of the contact of Christianity with philosophy. I. THE
PHILOSOPHIC DISCIPLINE OF THE JEWS.--Philosophy, if we limit
the word strictly to describe the free pursuit of knowledge of
which truth is the one complete end is essentially of western
growth. In the East the search after wisdom has always been
connected with practice. The history of the Jews offers no
exception to this remark: there is no Jewish philosophy,
properly so called. The method of Greece was to proceed from
life to God; the method of Israel (so to speak) was to proceed
from God to life. The axioms of one system are the conclusions
of the other. The one led to the successive abandonment of the
noblest domains of science which man had claimed originally as
his own, till it left bare systems of morality; the other, in
the fullness of time, prepared many to welcome the Christ--the
Truth. The philosophy of the Jews, using the word in a large
sense, is to be sought for rather in the progress of the
national life than in special books. Step by step the idea of
the family was raised into that of the people; and the kingdom
furnished the basis of those wider promises which included all
nations in one kingdom of heaven. The social, the political,
the cosmical relations of man were traced out gradually in
relation to God. The philosophy of the Jews is thus essentially
a moral philosophy, resting on a definite connection with God.
The doctrines of Creation and Providence, of an infinite divine
person and of a responsible human will, which elsewhere form
the ultimate limits of speculation, are here assumed at the
outset. The Psalms, which, among the other infinite lessons
which they convey, give a deep insight into the need of a
personal apprehension of truth, everywhere declare the absolute
sovereignty of God over the material and the moral world. One
man among all is distinguished among the Jews as "the wise
man". The description which is given of his writings serves as
a commentary on the national view of philosophy (1 Kings
4:30-33) The lesson of practical duty, the full utterance of "a
large heart," ibid. 29, the careful study of God's
creatures,--this is the sum of wisdom. Yet in fact the very
practical aim of this philosophy leads to the revelation of the
most sublime truth. Wisdom was gradually felt to be a person,
throned by God and holding converse with men. (Proverbs 8:1)
... She was seen to stand in open enmity with "the strange
woman"), who sought to draw them aside by sensuous attractions;
and thus a new step was made toward the central doctrine of
Christianity:--the incarnation of the Word. Two books of the
Bible, Job and Ecclesiastes, of which the latter at any rate
belongs to the period of the close of the kingdom, approach
more nearly than any others to the type of philosophical
discussions. But in both the problem is moral and not
metaphysical. The one deals with the evils which afflict "the
perfect and upright;" the other with the vanity of all the
pursuits and pleasures of earth. The captivity necessarily
exercised a profound influence. The teaching of Persia Jewish
thought. The teaching of Persia seems to have been designed to
supply important elements in the education of the chosen
people. But it did yet more than this. The contact of the Jews
with Persia thus gave rise to a traditional mysticism. Their
contact with Greece was marked by the rise of distinct sects.
In the third century B.C. the great Doctor Antigonus of Socho
bears a Greek name, and popular belief pointed to him as the
teacher of Sadoc and Boethus the supposed founders of Jewish
rationalism. At any rate we may date from this time the twofold
division of Jewish speculation, The Sadducees appear as the
supporters of human freedom in its widest scope; the Pharisees
of a religious Stoicism. At a later time the cycle of doctrine
was completed, when by a natural reaction the Essenes
established as mystic Asceticism. II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK
PHILOSOPHY.--The various attempts which have been made to
derive western philosophy from eastern sources have signally
failed. It is true that in some degree the character of Greek
speculation may have been influenced, at least in its
earliest-stages, by religious ideas which were originally
introduced from the East; but this indirect influence does hot
affect the real originality of the Greek teachers. The very
value of Greek teaching lies in the fact that it was, as far as
is possible, a result of simple reason, or, if faith asserts
ifs prerogative, the distinction is sharply marked. Of the
various classifications of the Greek schools which have been
proposed, the simplest and truest seems to be that which
divides the history of philosophy into three great periods, the
first reaching to the era of the Sophists, the next to the
death of Aristotle, the third to the Christian era. In the
first period the world objectively is the great centre of
inquiry; in the second, the "ideas" of things, truth, and
being; in the third, the chief interest of philosophy falls
back upon the practical conduct of life. After the Christian
era philosophy ceased to have any true vitality in Greece, but
it made fresh efforts to meet the conditions of life at
Alexandria and Rome.
+ The pre-Socratic schools .--The first Greek philosophy was
little more than an attempt to follow out in thought the
mythic cosmogonies of earlier poets. What is the one
permanent element which underlies the changing forms of
things?--this was the primary inquiry, to which the Ionic
school endeavored to find an answer. Thales (cir. B.C.
639-543) pointed to moisture (water) as the one source and
supporter of life. Anaximenes (cir. B.C. 520-480) substituted
air for wafer. At a much later date (cir. B.C. 460) Diogenes
of Apollonia represented this elementary "air" as endowed
with intelligence.
+ The Socratic schools .--In the second period of Greek
philosophy the scene and subject were both changed. A
philosophy of ideas, using the term in its widest sense,
succeeded a philosophy of nature, in three generations Greek
speculation reached its greatest glory in the teaching of
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. The famous sentence in which
Aristotle characterizes the teachings of Socrates
(B.C.465-399) places his scientific position in the clearest
light. There are two things, he says, which we may rightly
attribute to Socrates--inductive reasoning and general
definition. By the first he endeavored to discover the
permanent element which underlies the changing forms of
appearances and the varieties of opinion; by the second he
fixed the truth which he had thus gained. But, besides this,
Socrates rendered another service to truth. Ethics occupied
in his investigations the primary place which had hitherto
been held by Physics. The great aim of his induction was to
establish the sovereignty of Virtue. He affirmed the
existence of a universal law of right and wrong. He connected
philosophy with action, both in detail and in general. On the
one side he upheld the supremacy of Conscience, on the other
the working of Providence.
+ The post-Socratic schools .--after Aristotle, philosophy took
a new direction. Speculation became mainly personal. Epicurus
(B.C. 352-270) defined the object of philosophy to be the
attainment of a happy life. The pursuit of truth for its own
sake he recognized as superfluous. He rejected dialectics as
a useless study, and accepted the senses, in the widest
acceptation of the term, as the criterion of truth. But he
differed widely from the Cyrenaics in his view of happiness.
The happiness at which the wise man aims is to be found, he
said, not in momentary gratification, but in life-long
pleasure. All things were supposed to come into being by
chance, and so pass away. The individual was left master of
own life. While Epicurus asserted in this manner the claims
of one part of man's nature in the conduct of life, Zeno of
Citium (cir. B.C. 280), with equal partiality advocated a
purely spiritual (intellectual) morality. Opposition between
the two was complete. The infinite, chance-formed worlds of
the one stand over against the one harmonious world of the
other. On the one aide are gods regardless of material
things, on the other a Being permeating and vivifying all
creation. This difference necessarily found its chief
expression in Ethics. III. CHRISTIANITY IN CONTACT WITH
ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY.--The only direct trace of the contact of
Christianity with western philosophy in the New Testament is
in the account of St. Paul's visit to Athens, (Acts 17:18)
and there is nothing in the apostolic writings to show that
it exercised any important influence upon the early Church.
Comp. (1 Corinthians 1:22-24) But it was otherwise with
eastern speculation, which penetrated more deeply through the
mass of the people. The "philosophy" against which the
Colossians were warned, (Colossians 2:8) seems undoubtedly to
have been of eastern origin, containing elements similar to
those which were afterward embodied in various shapes of
Gnosticism, as a selfish asceticism, and a superstitions
reverence for angels, (Colossians 2:16-23) and in the
Epistles to Timothy, addressed to Ephesians, in which city
St. Paul anticipated the rise of false teaching, (Acts 20:30)
two distinct forms of error may be traced in addition to
Judaism, due more or less to the same influence. The writings
of the sub-apostolic age, with the exception of the famous
anecdote of Justin Martyr (Dial. 2--1), throw little light
upon the relations of Christianity and philosophy. Christian
philosophy may be in one sense a contradiction in terms, for
Christianity confessedly derives its first principles from
revelation, and not from simple reason; but there is no less
a true philosophy of Christianity, which aims to show how
completely these meet the instincts and aspirations of all
ages. The exposition of such a philosophy would be the work
of a modern Origen.
Phinehas
(mouth of brass).
+ Son of Eleazar and grandson of Aaron. (Exodus 6:25) He is
memorable for having while quite a youth, by his zeal and
energy at the critical moment of the licentious idolatry of
Shittim, appeased the divine wrath, and put a stop to the
plague which was destroying the nation. (Numbers 25:7) (B.C.
1452.) For this he was rewarded by the special approbation of
Jehovah and by a promise that the priesthood should remain in
his family forever. (Numbers 25:10-13) He was appointed to
accompany as priest the expedition by which the Midianites
were destroyed. ch. (Numbers 31:6) Many years later he also
headed the party which was despatched from Shiloh to
remonstrate against the altar which the transjordanic tribes
were reported to have built near Jordan. (Joshua 22:13-32) In
the partition of the country he received an allotment of his
own--a hill on Mount Ephraim which bore his name. After
Eleazar's death he became high priest--the third of the
series. In this capacity he is introduced as giving the
oracle to the nation during the whole struggle with the
Benjamites on the matter of Gibeah. (Judges 20:28) The verse
which closes the book of Joshua is ascribed to Phinehas, as
the description of the death of Moses at the end of
Deuteronomy is to Joshua. The tomb of Phinehas, a place of
great resort to both Jews and Samaritans, is shown at
Awertah, four miles southeast of Nablus .
+ Second son of Eli. (1 Samuel 1:3; 2:34; 4:4,11,17,19; 14:3)
Phinehas was killed with his brother by the Philistines when
the ark was captured. (B.C. 1125.) [[969]Eli]
+ A Levite of Ezra's time, (Ezra 8:33) unless the meaning be
that Eleazar was of the family of the great Phinehas.
Phlegon
(burning), a Christian at Rome whom St. Paul salutes. (Romans
16:14) (A.D.55.) Pseudo-Hippolytus makes him one of the seventy
disciples and bishop of Marathon.
Phoebe
(radiant) the first and one of the most important of the
Christian persons the detailed mention of whom nearly all the
last chapter of the Epistle to the Romans. (A.D.55.) What is
said of her, (Romans 16:1,2) is worthy of special notice
because of its bearing on the question of the deaconesses of
the apostolic Church.
Phoenice, Phoenicia
(land of palm trees) a tract of country, of which Tyre and
Sidon were the principal cities, to the north of Palestine,
along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea bounded by that sea on
the west, and by the mountain range of Lebanon on the east. The
name was not the one by which its native inhabitants called it,
but was given to it by the Greeks, from the Greek word for the
palm tree. The native name of Phoenicia was Kenaan (Canaan) or
Kna, signifying lowland, so named in contrast to the ad joining
Aram, i.e. highland, the Hebrew name of Syria. The length of
coast to which the name of Phoenicia was applied varied at
different times.
+ What may be termed Phoenicia proper was a narrow undulating
plain, extending from the pass of Ras el-Beyad or Abyad, the
Promontorium Album of the ancients, about six miles south of
Tyre, to the Nahr el-Auly, the ancient Bostrenus, two miles
north of Sidon. The plain is only 28 miles in length. Its
average breadth is about a mile; but near Sidon the mountains
retreat to a distance of two miles, and near Tyre to a
distance of five miles.
+ A longer district, which afterward became entitled to the
name of Phoenicia, extended up the coast to a point marked by
the island of Aradus, and by Antaradus toward the north; the
southern boundary remaining the same as in Phoenicia proper.
Phoenicia, thus defined is estimated to have been about 120
miles in length; while its breadth, between Lebanon and the
sea, never exceeded 20 miles, and was generally much less.
The whole of Phoenicia proper is well watered by various
streams from the adjoining hills. The havens of Tyre and
Sidon afforded water of sufficient depth for all the
requirements of ancient navigation, and the neighboring range
of the Lebanon, in its extensive forests, furnished what then
seemed a nearly inexhaustible supply of timber for
ship-building. Language and race .--The Phoenicians spoke a
branch of the Semitic language so closely allied to Hebrew
that Phoenician and Hebrew, though different dialects, may
practically be regarded as the same language. Concerning the
original race to which the Phoenicians belonged, nothing can
be known with certainty, because they are found already
established along the Mediterranean Sea at the earliest dawn
of authentic history, and for centuries afterward there is no
record of their origin. According to Herodotus, vii. 89, they
said of themselves in his time that they came in days of old
from the shores of the Red Sea and in this there would be
nothing in the slightest degree improbable as they spoke a
language cognate to that of the Arabians, who inhabited the
east coast of that sea. Still neither the truth nor the
falsehood of the tradition can now be proved. But there is
one point respecting their race which can be proved to be in
the highest degree probable, and which has peculiar interest
as bearing on the Jews, viz., that the Phoenicians were of
the same race as the Canaanites. Commerce, etc .--In regard
to Phoenician trade, connected with the Israelites, it must
be recollected that up to the time of David not one of the
twelve tribes seems to have possessed a single harbor on the
seacoast; it was impossible there fore that they could become
a commercial people. But from the time that David had
conquered Edom, an opening for trade was afforded to the
Israelites. Solomon continued this trade with its king,
obtained timber from its territory and employed its sailors
and workmen. (2 Samuel 5:11; 1 Kings 5:9,17,18) The religion
of the Phoenicians, opposed to Monotheism, was a
pantheistical personification of the forces of nature and in
its most philosophical shadowing forth of the supreme powers
it may be said to have represented the male and female
principles of production. In its popular form it was
especially a worship of the sun, moon and five planets, or,
as it might have been expressed according to ancient notions,
of the seven planets--the most beautiful and perhaps the most
natural form of idolatry ever presented to the human
imagination. Their worship was a constant temptation for the
Hebrews to Polytheism and idolatry--
+ Because undoubtedly the Phoenicians, as a great commercial
people, were more generally intelligent, and as we should now
say civilized, than the inland agricultural population of
Palestine. When the simple-minded Jews, therefore, came in
contact with a people more versatile and apparently more
enlightened than themselves, but who nevertheless, either in
a philosophical or in a popular form admitted a system of
Polytheism an influence would be exerted on Jewish minds
tending to make them regard their exclusive devotion to their
own one God Jehovah, however transcendent his attributes, as
unsocial and morose.
+ The Phoenician religion had in other respects an injurious
effect on the people of Palestine, being in some points
essentially demoralizing, For example, it mentioned the
dreadful superstition of burning children as sacrifices to a
Phoenician god. Again, parts of the Phoenician religion,
especially the worship of Astarte, fended to encourage
dissoluteness in the relations of the sexes, and even to
sanctify impurities of the most abominable description. The
only other fact respecting the Phoenicians that need be
mentioned here is that the invention of letters was
universally asserted by the Greeks and Romans to have been
communicated by the Phoenicians to the Greeks. For further
details respecting the Phoenicians see [970]Tyre and
[971]Zidon, Or Sidon. Phoenicia is now a land of ruins.
Phrygia
(dry, barren). Perhaps there is no geographical term in the New
Testament which is less capable of an exact definition. In fact
there was no Roman province of Phrygia till considerably after
the first establishment of Christianity in the peninsula of
Asia Minor. The word was rather ethnological than political,
and denoted in a vague manner the western part of the central
region of that peninsula. Accordingly, in two of the three
places where it is used it is mentioned in a manner not
intended to he precise. (Acts 16:6; 18:23) By Phrygia we must
understand an extensive district in Asia Minor which
contributed portions to several Roman provinces, and varying
portions at different times. (All over this district the Jews
were probably numerous. The Phrygians were a very ancient
people, and were supposed to be among the aborigines of Asia
Minor. Several bishops from Phrygia were present at the
Councils of Nice, A.D. 325, and of Constantinople, A.D. 381,
showing the prevalence of Christianity at that time--ED.)
Phurah
(bough), Gideon's servant, probably his armor-bearer, comp. (1
Samuel 14:1) who accompanied him in his midnight visit to the
camp of the Midianites. (Judges 7:10,11)
Phurim
(Esther 11:1) [[972]Purim]
Phut, Put
(a bow) the third name in the list of the sons of Ham (Genesis
10:6; 1 Chronicles 1:8) elsewhere applied to an African country
or people. The few mentions of Phut in the Bible clearly
indicate a country or people of Africa, and, it must be added,
probably not far from Egypt. (Isaiah 66:19; Jeremiah 46:9;
Ezekiel 27:10; 30:5; 38:5; Nahum 3:9) Some identify it with
Libya, in the northern part Africa near the Mediterranean Sea;
others, as Mr. Poole, with Nubia, south of Egypt.
Phuvah
(mouth), one of the sons of Issachar, (Genesis 46:13) and
founder of the family of the Punites.
Phygellus
(fugitive). [[973]Hermogenes]
Phygelus
Used in the Revised Version in (2 Timothy 1:15) for
[974]Phygellus.
Phylactery
[[975]Frontlets, Or Phylacteries]
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Table of
Contents Pibeseth
a town of lower Egypt, mentioned in (Ezekiel 30:17) the same as
Bubastis, so named from the goddess Bubastis. It was situated
on the west bank of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, about 40
miles front Memphis. It was probably a city of great importance
when Ezekiel foretold its doom.
Picture
In two of the three passages in which "picture" is used in the
Authorized Version it denotes idolatrous representations,
either independent images or more usually stones "portrayed,"
i.e. sculptured in low relief, or engraved and colored.
(Ezekiel 23:14) Layard, Nin. and Rob. ii. 306, 308. Moveable
pictures, in the modern sense, were doubtless unknown to the
Jews. The "pictures of silver" of (Proverbs 25:11) were
probably well surfaces or cornices with carvings.
Piece Of Gold
The rendering "pieces of gold," as in (2 Kings 5:5) is very
doubtful; and "shekels of gold") as designating the value of
the whole quantity, not individual pieces is preferable. Coined
money was unknown in Palestine till the Persian period.
Piece Of Silver
I. In the Old Testament the word "pieces" is used in the
Authorized Version for a word understood in the Hebrew (if we
except) (Psalms 68:30) The phrase is always "a thousand," or
the like, "of silver." (Genesis 20:16; 37:28; 45:28; Judges
9:4; 16:5; 2 Kings 6:25; Hosea 3:2; Zechariah 11:12,13) In
similar passages the word "shekels" occurs in the Hebrew. There
are other passages in which the Authorized Version supplies the
word "shekels" instead of "pieces," (22:19,29; Judges
17:2,3,4,10; 2 Samuel 18:11,12) and of these the first two
require this to be done. The shekel, be it remembered, was the
common weight for money, and therefore most likely to be
understood in an elliptical phrase. The "piece" or shekel of
silver weighed 220 grains, or about half an ounce, and was
worth a little more than half a dollar (55 cents). II. In the
New Testament two words are rendered by the phrase "piece of
silver:"
+ Drachma, (Luke 15:8,9) which was a Greek silver coin,
equivalent, at the time of St. Luke, to the Roman denarias
(15 or 16 cents).
+ Silver occurs only in the account of the betrayal of our Lord
for "thirty pieces of silver." (Matthew 26:15; 17:3,5,6,9) It
is difficult to ascertain what coins are here intended. If
the most common silver pieces be meant, they would be
denarii. The parallel passage in Zachariah, (Zechariah
11:12,13) must, however, be taken into consideration where
shekels (worth about 55 cents) must be understood. It is more
probable that the thirty pieces of silver were tetradrachms
than that they were denarii (80 cents).
Piety
This word occurs but once in the Authorized Version: "Let them
learn first to show piety at home," better "toward their own
household" or family. (1 Timothy 5:4) The choice of this word
here instead of the more usual equivalents -of "godliness,"
"reverence," and the like, was probably determined by the
special sense of pietas, as "erga parentes," i.e. toward
parents.
Pigeon
[TURTLE-DOVE]
Pihahiroth
a place before or at which the Israelites encamped, at the
close of the third march from Rameses (the last place before
they crossed the Red Sea), when they went out of Egypt. (Exodus
14:2,9; Numbers 35:7,8) It is an Egyptian word, signifying "the
place where sedge grows."
Pilate
(armed with a spear), Pontius. Pontius Pilate was the sixth
Roman procurator of Judea, and under him our Lord worked,
suffered and died, as we learn not only from Scripture, but
from Tacitus (Ann. xv. 44). was appointed A.D. 25-6, in the
twelfth year of Tiberius. His arbitrary administration nearly
drove the Jews to insurrection on two or three occasions. One
of his first acts was to remove the headquarters of the army
from Caesarea to Jerusalem. The soldiers of course took with
them their standards, bearing the image of the emperor, into
the holy city. No previous governor had ventured on such an
outrage. The people poured down in crowds to Caesarea, where
the procurator was then residing, and besought him to remove
the images. After five days of discussion he gave the signal to
some concealed soldiers to surround the petitioners and put
them to death unless they ceased to trouble him; but this only
strengthened their determination, and they declared themselves
ready rather to submit to death than forego their resistance to
aa idolatrous innovation. Pilate then yielded, and the
standards were by his orders brought down to Caesarea. His
slaughter of certain Galileans, (Luke 13:1) led to some remarks
from our Lord on the connection between sin and calamity. It
must have occurred at some feast at Jerusalem, in the outer
court of the temple. It was the custom for the procurators to
reside at Jerusalem during the great feasts, to preserve order,
and accordingly, at the time of our Lord's last Passover,
Pilate was occupying his official residence in Herod's palace.
The history of his condemnation of our Lord is familiar to all.
We learn from Josephus that Pilate's anxiety to avoid giving
offence to Caesar did not save him from political disaster. The
Samaritans were unquiet and rebellious Pilate led his troops
against them, and defeated them enough. The Samaritans
complained to Vitellius, then president of Syria, and he sent
Pilate to Rome to answer their accusations before the emperor.
When he reached it he found Tiberius dead and Caius (Caligula)
on the throne A,D, 36. Eusebius adds that soon afterward
"wearied with misfortunes," he killed himself. As to the scene
of his death there are various traditions. One is that he was
banished to Vienna Allobrogum (Vienne on the Rhone), where a
singular monument--a pyramid on a quadrangular base, 52 feet
high--is called Pontius Pilate"s tomb, An other is that he
sought to hide his sorrows on the mountain by the lake of
Lucerne, now called Mount Pilatus; and there) after spending
years in its recesses, in remorse and despair rather than
penitence, plunged into the dismal lake which occupies its
summit.
Pildash
(flame of fire), one of the eight sons of Nahor, Abraham's
brother by Iris wife and niece, Milcah. (Genesis 22:22) (B.C.
1900.)
Pileha
(worship), the name of one of the chief of the people, probably
a family, who signed the covenant with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah
10:24) (B.C. 410.)
Pillar
The notion of a pillar is of a shaft or isolated pile either
supporting or not supporting a roof. But perhaps the earliest
application of the pillar was the votive or monumental, This in
early times consisted of nothing but a single stone or pile of
stones. (Genesis 28:18; 31:40) etc. The stone Ezel, (1 Samuel
20:19) was probably a terminal stone or a way-mark. The "place"
set up by Saul (1 Samuel 15:12) is explained by St, Jerome to
be a trophy. So also Jacob set up a pillar over Rachel's grave.
(Genesis 36:20) The monolithic tombs and obelisks of Petra are
instances of similar usage. Lastly, the figurative use of the
term "pillar," in reference to the cloud and fire accompanying
the Israelites on their march or as in (Song of Solomon 3:6)
and Reve 10:1 Is plainly derived from the notion of an isolated
column not supporting a roof.
Pillar, Plain Of The
or rather "oak of the pillar" (that being the real
signification of the Hebrew word elon), a tree which stood near
Shechem and at which the men of Shechem and the house of Millo
assembled to crown Abimelech the son of Gideon. (Judges 9:6)
Pilled
(Genesis 30:37,38) "peeled," Isai 18:2; Ezek 29:28 The verb "to
pill" appears in old English as identical in meaning with "to
peel, to strip."
Piltai, Or Piltai
(my deliverances), the representative of the priestly house of
Moadiah or Maadiah, in the time of Joiakim the son of Jeshua.
(Nehemiah 12:17) (B.C. 445.)
Pine Tree
+ Heb. tidhar . (Isaiah 41:19; 60:13) What tree is intended is
not certain: but the rendering "pine," seems least probable
of any.
+ Shemen, (Nehemiah 8:16) is probably the wild olive.
Pinnacle
(of the temple), (Matthew 4:5; Luke 4:9) The Greek word ought
to be rendered not a pinnacle, but the pinnacle. The only part
of the temple which answered to the modern sense of pinnacle
was the golden spikes erected on the roof to prevent birds from
settling there. Perhaps the word means the battlement ordered
by law to be added to every roof. (According to Alford it was
the roof of Herod's royal portico of the temple,"which overhung
the ravine of Kedron from a dizzy height"--600 or 700
feet.-ED.)
Pinon
(darkness), one of the "dukes" of Edom,--that is, head or
founder of a tribe of that nation. (Genesis 38:41; 1 Chronicles
1:52)
Pipe
(Heb. chalil). The Hebrew word so rendered is derived from a
root signifying "to bore, perforate" and is represented with
sufficient correctness by the English "pipe" or "flute," as in
the margin of (1 Kings 1:40) The pipe was the type of
perforated wind instruments, as the harp was of stringed
instruments. It was made of reed, bronze or copper. It is one
of the simplest, and therefore probably one of the oldest, of
musical Instruments. It is associated with the tabret as an
instrument of a peaceful and social character. The pipe and
tabret were used at the banquets of the Hebrews, (Isaiah 5:12)
and accompanied the simpler religious services when the young
prophets, returning from the high place, caught their
inspiration from the harmony, (1 Samuel 10:5) or the pilgrims,
on their way to the great festivals of their ritual, beguiled
the weariness of the march with psalms sung to the simple music
of the pipe. (Isaiah 30:29) The sound of the pipe was
apparently a soft wailing note, which made it appropriate to be
used in mourning and at funerals (Matthew 9:23) and in the
lament of the prophet over the destruction of Moab. (Jeremiah
48:36) It was even used in the temple choir, as appears from
(Psalms 87:7) In later times the funeral and death-bed were
never without the professional pipers or flute-players,
(Matthew 9:23) a custom which still exists. In the social and
festive life of the Egyptians the pipe played as prominent a
part as among the Hebrews.
Piram
(like a wild ass; fleet) the Amorite king of Jarmuth at the
time of Joshua's conquest of Canaan. (Joshua 10:3) (B.C. 1450.)
Pirathon
(princely), "in the land of Ephraim in the mount of the
Amalekite," a place in (Judges 12:15) Its site, now called
Fer'ata, is about one mile and a half south of the road from
Jaffa, by Hableh, to Nablus . Pirathonites are mentioned in
(Judges 12:13,15) and 1Chr 27:14
Pirathonite
a native of or dweller in Pirathon. Two such are named in the
Bible:--
+ Abdon ben-Hillel. (Judges 12:13,15)
+ "Benaiah the Pirathonite of the children of Ephraim," (1
Chronicles 27:14)
Pisgah
(section, i.e. peak), (Numbers 21:20; 23:14; 3:27; 34:1) a
mountain range or district, the same as or a part of, that
called the mountains of Abarim. Comp. (32:49) with Deuteronomy
34:1 It lay on the east of Jordan contiguous to the field of
Moab, and immediately opposite Jericho. Its highest point or
summit--its "head"--was Mount Nebo. [See [976]Nebo]
Pisidia
(pitchy) was a district in Asia Minor north of Pamphylia, and
reached to and was partly included in Phrygia. Thus Antioch in
Pisidia was sometimes called a Phrygian town. St. Paul passed
through Pisidia twice, with Barnabas, on the first missionary
journey, i.e., both in going from Perga to Iconium, (Acts
13:13,14,51) and in returning. (Acts 14:21,24,25) comp. 2Tim
3:11 It is probable also that he traversed the northern part of
the district, with Silas and Timotheus, on the second
missionary journey, (Acts 18:8) but the word Pisidia does not
occur except in reference to the former journey.
Pison
[[977]Eden]
Pit
[[978]Hell]
Pitch
The three Hebrew words so translated all represent the same
object, viz., mineral pitch or asphalt in its different
aspects. Asphalt is an opaque, inflammable substance which
bubbles up from subterranean fountains in a liquid state, and
hardens by exposure to the air, but readily melts under the
influence of heat. In the latter state it is very tenacious,
and was used as a cement in lieu of mortar in Babylonia
((Genesis 11:3) as well as for coating the outside of vessels,
(Genesis 6:14) and particularly for making the papyrus boats of
the Egyptians water-tight. (Exodus 2:3) The jews and Arabians
got their supply in large quantities from the Dead Sea, which
hence received its classical name of Lacus Asphaltites .
Pitcher
This word is used in the Authorized Version to denote the
earthen water-jars or pitchers with one or two handles, used
chiefly by women for carrying water, as in the story of
Rebekah. (Genesis 24:15-20) but see Mark 14:13; Luke 22:10 This
mode of carrying has been and still is customary the East and
elsewhere. The vessels used for the purpose are generally borne
on the head or the shoulder. The Bedouin women commonly use
skin bottles. Such was the "bottle" carried by Hagar (Genesis
21:14) The same word is used of the pitchers employed by
Gideon's three hundred men. (Judges 7:16)
Pithom
(the city of justice), one of the store-cites Israelites for
the first oppressor, the Pharaoh "which knew not Joseph."
(Exodus 1:11) It is probably the Patumus of Herodotus (ii. 1
159), a town on the borders of Egypt, nest which Necho
constructed a canal from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf.
Pithon
(harmless), one of the four sons of Micah, the son of
Mephibosheth. (1 Chronicles 8:36; 9:41) (B.C. 1050.)
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Table of
Contents Plague, The
The plague is considered to be a severe kind of typhus,
accompanied by buboes (tumors).--Like the cholera, it is most
violent at the first outbreak, causing almost instant death.
Great difference of opinion has obtained as to whether it is
contagious or not. It was very prevalent in the East, and still
prevails in Egypt. Several Hebrew words are translated
"pestilence" or "plague" but not one of these words call be
considered as designating by its signification the disease now
called the plague. Whether the disease be mentioned must be
judged from the sense of passages, not from the sense of words.
Those pestilences which were sent as special judgments, and
were either supernaturally rapid in their effects or were in
addition directed against particular culprits are beyond the
reach of human inquiry. But we also read of pestilences which,
although sent as judgments, have the characteristics of modern
epidemics, not being rapid beyond nature nor directed against
individuals. (Leviticus 26:25; 28:21) In neither of these
passages does,it seem certain that the plague is specified. The
notices in the prophets present the same difficulty. Hezekiah's
disease has been thought to have been the plague, and its fatal
nature, as well as the mention of a boil, makes this not
improbable. On the other hand, there Is no mention of a
pestilence among his people at the time.
Plagues, The Ten
The occasion on which the plagues were sent is described in
Exod 3-12.
+ The plague of blood.When Moses and Aaron came before Pharaoh,
a miracle was required of them. Then Aaron's rod became "a
serpent (Authorized Version), or rather "a crocodile." Its
being changed into an animal reverenced by all the Egyptians,
or by some of them, would have been an especial warning to
Pharaoh, The Egyptian magicians called by the king produced
what seemed to be the same wonder, yet Aaron's rod swallowed
up the others. (Exodus 7:3-12) This passage, taken alone
would appear to indicate that the magicians succeeded in
working wonders, but, if it is compared with the others which
relate their opposition on the occasions of the first three
plagues, a contrary inference seems more reasonable for the
very first time that Moses wrought his miracle without giving
previous notice, the magicians "did so with their
enchantments," but failed. A comparison with other passages
strengthens us in the inference that the magicians succeeded
merely by juggling. After this warning to Pharaoh, Aaron, at
the word of Moses, waved his rod over the Nile, and the river
was turned into blood, with all its canals and reservoirs,
and every vessel of water drawn from them; the fish died, and
the river stank. The Egyptians could not drink of it, and
digged around it for water. This plague was doubly
humiliating to the religion of the country, as the Nile was
held sacred, as well as some kinds of its fish, not to speak
of the crocodiles, which probably were destroyed. (Exodus
7:16-25) Those who have endeavored to explain this plague by
natural causes have referred to the changes of color to which
the Nile is subject, the appearance of the Red Sea, and the
so called rain and dew of blood of the middle ages; the last
two occasioned by small fungi of very rapid growth. But such
theories do not explain why the wonder happened at a time of
year when the Nile is most clear nor why it killed the fish
and made the water unfit to he drunk.
+ The plague of frogs .--When seven days had passed after the
first plague, the river and all the open waters of Egypt
brought forth countless frogs, which not only covered the
land but filled the houses, even in their driest parts and
vessels, for the ovens and kneading-troughs are specified.
This must have been an especially trying judgment to the
Egyptians, as frogs were included among the sacred animals.
(Exodus 8:1-15)
+ The plague of lice .--The dry land was now smitten by the
rod, and very dust seemed turned into minute noxious insects,
so thickly did they swarm on man and beast, or rather "in"
them. The scrupulous cleanliness of the Egyptians would add
intolerably to the bodily distress of this plague, by which
also they again incurred religious defilement. As to the
species of the vermin, there seems no reason to disturb the
authorized translation of the word. The magicians, who had
imitated by their enchantments the two previous miracles,
were now foiled. They struck the ground, as Aaron did, and
repeated their own incantations. but it was without effect.
(Exodus 8:16-19)
+ The plague of flies .--After the river and the land, the air
was smitten, being filled with winged insects, which swarmed
in the houses and devoured the land, but Goshen was exempted
from the plague. The word translated "swarms of flies" most
probably denotes the great Egyptian beetle, Scarabaeus sacer,
which is constantly represented in their sculptures. Besides
the annoying and destructive habits of its tribe, it was an
object of worship, and thus the Egyptians were again scourged
by their own superstitions. (Exodus 8:20-32)
+ The plague of the murrain of beasts .--Still coming closer
and closer to the Egyptians, God sent a disease upon the
cattle, which were not only their property but their deities.
At the precise time of which Moses forewarned Pharaoh, all
the cattle of the Egyptians were smitten with a murrain and
died, but not one of the cattle of the Israelites suffered.
(Exodus 9:1-7)
+ The plague of boils--From the cattle the hand of God was
extended to the persons of the Egyptians. Moses and Aaron
were commanded to take ashes of the furnace, and to "sprinkle
it toward the heaven in the sight of Pharaoh." It was to
become "small dust" throughout Egypt, and "be a boil breaking
forth [with] blains upon man and upon beast." (Exodus 9:8-12)
This accordingly came to pass. The plague seems to have been
the leprosy, a fearful kind of elephantiasis which was long
remembered as "the botch of Egypt." (28:27,35)
+ The plague of hail .--The account of the seventh plague is
preceded by a warning which Moses was commanded to deliver to
Pharaoh, respecting the terrible nature of the plagues that
were to ensue if he remained obstinate. Man and beast were
smitten, and the herbs and every tree broken, save in the
land of Goshen. The ruin caused by the hail was evidently far
greater than that effected by any of the earlier plagues.
Hail is now extremely rare, but not unknown, in Egypt, and it
is interesting that the narrative seems to imply that if
sometimes falls there. (Exodus 9:13-34)
+ The plague of locusts .--The severity of this plague can be
well understood by those who have been in Egypt in a part of
the country where a flight of locusts has alighted. In this
case the plague was greater than an ordinary visitation,
since it extended over a far wider space, rather than because
it was more intense; for it is impossible to imagine any more
complete destruction than that always caused by a swarm of
locusts. (Exodus 10:1-20)
+ The plague of darkness .--"There was a darkness in all the
land of Egypt three days;" while "all the children of Israel
had light in their dwellings." It has been illustrated by
reference to the samoom and the hot wind of the Khamaseen.
The former is a sand-storm which occurs in the desert, seldom
lasting more than a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes, but
for the time often causing the darkness of twilight, and
affecting man and beast. The hot wind of the Khamaseen
usually blows for three days and nights, and carries so much
sand with it that it produces the appearance of a yellow fog.
It thus resembles the samoom, though far less powerful and
less distressing in its effects. It is not known to cause
actual darkness. The plague may have been an extremely severe
sandstorm, miraculous in its violence and duration, for the
length of three days does not make it natural since the
severe storms are always very brief. (Exodus 10:21-29)
+ The death of the first-born .--Before the tenth plague Moses
went to warn Pharaoh: "Thus saith the Lord, about midnight
will I go out into the midst of Egypt; and all the first-born
in the land of Egypt shall die, from the first-born of
Pharaoh that sitteth upon his throne even to the first-born
of the maidservant that is behind the mill; and all the
first-born of beasts." (Exodus 11:4,5) The clearly miraculous
nature of this plague, its falling upon man and in its beast;
and the singling out of the firstborn, puts it wholly beyond
comparison with any natural pestilence, even the severest
recorded in history, whether of the peculiar Egyptian plague
or of other like epidemics. The history of the ten plagues
strictly ends with the death of the first-born. The gradual
increase in severity of the plagues is perhaps the best key
to their meaning. They seem to have been sent as warnings to
the oppressor, to afford him a means of seeing God's will and
an opportunity of repenting before Egypt was ruined. The
lesson that Pharaoh's career teaches us seems to be that
there are men whom the meet signal judgments do not affect so
as to cause any lasting repentance. The following
characteristics of the plagues may be specially noticed: (1)
Their relation to natural phenomena. Each of the inflictions
has a demonstrable connection with Egyptian customs and
phenomena; each is directly aimed at some Egyptian
superstition all are marvellous, not for the most part as
reversing, but as developing, forces inherent in nature, and
directing them to a special end.--Canon Cook . (2) Their
order. They are divided first into nine and one the last one
standing clearly apart from all the others. The nine are
arranged in threes. In the first of each three the warning is
given to Pharaoh in the morning. In the first and second of
each three the plague is announced beforehand in the third,
not. At the third the magicians acknowledge the finger of
God; at the sixth they cannot stand before Moses; and at the
ninth Pharaoh refuses to see the face of Moses any more. The
gradation of the severity of these strokes is no less
obvious. In the first three no distinction is made among the
inhabitants of the land; in the remaining seven a distinction
is made between the Israelites, who are shielded from, and
the Egyptians who are exposed to, the stroke. -Kurlz, (3)
Their duration. It is probable that the plagues extended
through a period of several months. The first plague occurred
probably during the annual inundation of the Nile, hence
about the middle of June (Edersheim). The second, that of the
frogs, in September, the time when Egypt often suffers in
this way. The seventh (hail) came when the barley was in ear,
and before the wheat was grown, and hence in February; and
the tenth came in the following March or April. (4) Their
significance. The first plague was directed against the Nile
one of the Egyptian deities, adored as a source of life, not
only to the produce of the land, but to its inhabitants. The
second plague, that of the frogs, struck also at the idolatry
of Egypt; for the frog was an object of worship. The third
plague turned the land, which was worshipped, into a source
of torment the dust produced a curse. The fourth plague
consisted in the torment of either flies of a ravenous
disposition, or beetles. If the former, then the air, which
was worshipped, was turned into a source of exquisite
annoyance; if the latter then the beetle, one of the most
common of the Egyptian idols, swarmed with voracious
appetite, attacking even man, as the Egyptian beetle still
does and inflicting painful wounds. The fifth plague, that of
murrain, struck at the cattle-worship for which Egypt was
celebrated. The sixth plague, produced by the ashes scattered
toward heaven in conformity with an ancient Egyptian rite, as
if an invocation of the sun-god, continued the warfare of
Jehovah upon Egyptian idolatry; the religious ceremony which
was employed to invoke blessing brought disease. The seventh
plague, beginning a new series, seems to have been aimed like
those which followed, to demonstrate the power of Jehovah
over all the elements, and even life itself, in contrast with
the impotence of the idols. The storm and the hail came at
his bidding. The locusts appeared and departed at his word.
The sun itself was veiled at his command. Nay, the angel of
death was held and loosed by his hand alone. The tenth plague
had an immediate relation to idolatry, since it destroyed not
only the first-born of man, but the first-born of beast; so
that the sacred animals in the temples were touched by a
power higher than those they were supposed to represent. The
victory was complete; upon all the gods of Egypt, Jehovah had
executed judgment.--Rev. Franklin Johnson .
Plains
This one term does duty in the Authorized Version for no less
than seven distinct Hebrew words.
+ Abel . This word perhaps answers more nearly to our word
"meadow" than any other. It occurs in the names of Abel-maim
Abel-meholah, Abel-shittim and is rendered "plain" in (Judges
11:33)--"plain of vineyards."
+ Bik'ah . Fortunately we are able to identify the most
remarkable of the bik'ahs of the Bible, and thus to ascertain
the force of the term. The great plain or valley of
Coele-Syria, the "hollow land" of the Greeks, which separates
the two ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon is the most
remarkable of them all. Out of Palestine we find denoted by
the word bik'ah the "plain of the land of Shiner," (Genesis
11:2) the "plain of Mesopotamia," (Ezekiel 3:22,23; 8:4;
37:1,2) and the "plain in the province of Dura." (Daniel 3:1)
+ Ha shefelah the invariable designation of the depressed, flat
or gently-undulating region which intervened between the
highlands of Judah and the Mediterranean, and was commonly in
possession of the Philistines.
+ Elon . Our translators have uniformly rendered this word
"plain;" but this is not the verdict of the majority or the
most trustworthy of the ancient versions. They regard the
word as meaning an "oak" or "grove of oaks," a rendering
supported by nearly all the commentators and lexicographers
of the present day, The passages in which the word occurs
erroneously translated "plain" are as-follows: Plain of
Moreh, (Genesis 12:6; 11:30) plain of Mamre, (Genesis 13:18;
14:13; 18:1) plain of Zaanaim, (Judges 4:11) plain of the
pillar, (Judges 9:6) plain of Meonenim, (Judges 9:37) plain
of Tabor, (1 Samuel 10:5)
Pledge
[[979]Loan]
Pleiades
The Hebrew word (cimah) so rendered occurs in (Job 9:9; 38:31;
Amos 6:8) In the last passage our Authorized Version has "the
seven stars," although the Geneva version translates the word
"Pleiades" as in the other cases. The Pleiades are a group of
stars situated on the shoulder of the constellation Taurus. The
rendering "sweet influences" of the Authorized Version, (Job
38:31) is a relic of the lingering belief in the power which
the stars exerted over human destiny. But Schaff thinks the
phrase arose from the fact that the Pleiades appear about the
middle of April, and hence are associated with the return of
spring, the season of sweet influences .
Plough
The ploughs of ancient Egypt consisted of a share-often pointed
with iron or bronze--two handles and a pole which was inserted
into the base of the two handles. Ploughs in Palestine have
usually but one handle with a pole joined to it near the ground
and drawn by oxen, cows or camels.
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Table of
Contents Pochereth
The children of Pochereth of Zebaim were among the children of
Solomon's servants who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:57;
Nehemiah 7:59)
Poetry, Hebrew
+ Lyrical poetry .--Of the three kinds of poetry which are
illustrated by the Hebrew literature, the lyric occupies the
foremost place. That literature abounds with illustrations of
all forms of Lyrical poetry, in its most manifold and
wide-embracing compass, from such short ejaculations as the
songs of the two Lamechs and Psal 15, 117 and others, to the
longer chants of victors and thanksgiving, like the songs of
Deborah and David. Judg 5; Psal 18. The Shemitic nations have
nothing approaching to an epic poem, and in proportion to
this defect the lyric element prevailed more greatly,
commencing in the pre-Mosaic times, flourishing in rude vigor
during the earlier periods of the judges, the heroic age of
the Hebrews, growing with the nation's growth and
strengthening with its strength, till it reached its highest
excellence in David, the warrior poet, and from thenceforth
began slowly to decline.
+ Gnomic poetry .--The second grand division of Hebrew poetry
is occupied by a class of poems which are peculiarly
Shemitic, and which represent the nearest approaches made by
the people of that race to anything like philosophic thought.
Reasoning there is none: we have only results, and those
rather the product of observation and reflection than of
induction or argumentation. As lyric poetry is the expression
of the poet's own feelings and impulses, so gnomic poetry is
the form in which the desire of communicating knowledge to
others finds vent. Its germs are the floating proverbs which
pass current in the mouths of the people, and embody the
experiences of many with the wit of one. The utterer of
sententious sayings was to the Hebrews the wise man, the
philosopher. Of the earlier isolated proverbs but few
examples remain.
+ Dramatic poetry .--It is impossible to assert that no form of
the drama existed among the Hebrew people. It is
unquestionably true, as Ewald observes, that the Arab
reciters of romances will many times in their own persons act
out a complete drama in recitation, changing their voice and
gestures with the change of person and subject. Something of
this kind may possibly have existed among the Hebrews; still
there is no evidence that it did exist, nor any grounds for
making even a probable conjecture with regard to it. But the
mere fact of the existence of these rude exhibitions' among
the Arabs and Egyptians of the present day is of no weight
when the question to be decided is whether the Song of Songs
was designed to be so represented, as a simple pastoral
drama, or whether the book of Job is a dramatic poem or not.
Inasmuch as it represents an action and a progress, it is a
drama as truly and really as any poem can be which develops
the working of passion and the alter-nations of faith, hope,
distrust, triumph and confidence and black despair, in the
struggle which it depicts the human mind as engaged in while
attempting to solve one of the most intricate problems it can
be called upon to regard. It is a drama as life is a drama,
the most powerful of all tragedies but that it is a dramatic
poem, intended to be represented upon a stage, or capable of
being so represented, may be confidently denied. One
characteristic of Hebrew poetry, not indeed peculiar to it,
but shared by it in common with the literature of other
nations, is its intensely national and local coloring. The
writers were Hebrews of the Hebrews, drawing their
inspiration from the mountains and rivers of Palestine, which
they have immortalized in their poetic figures, and even
while uttering the sublimest and most universal truths never
forgetting their own nationality in its narrowest and
intensest form. Examples of this remarkable characteristic
the Hebrew poets stand thick upon every page of these
writings, and in striking contrast with the vague
generalizations of the indian philosophic poetry. About one
third of the Old Testament is poetry in the Hebrew--a large
part of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Song of
Solomon, besides a great part of the prophets. Fragments of
poetry are also found in the historical books. (The form
which biblical poetry takes is not of rhyme and metre--the
rhythm of quantity in the syllables--as with us, but the
rhythm of the thought--there usually being two corresponding
members to each distich or verse, which is called a
parallelism. To some extent there is verbal rhythm. Sometimes
there were alliterations, as in the 119th Psalm, which is
divided up into sections, one for each letter of their
alphabet, and each of the eight verses in a section begins
with the same letter in the Hebrew; and chap. 31, vs. 10-31,
of the book of Proverbs is an alphabetical acrostic in praise
of "the virtuous woman." The poetry of the Hebrews, in its
essential poetic nature, stands in the front rank. It abounds
in metaphors and images and in high poetic feeling and
fervor.--ED.)
Pollux
[[980]Castor And Pollux AND POLLUX]
Polygamy
[[981]Marriage]
Pomegranate
The pomegranate tree, Punicu granatum, derives its name from
the Latin pomum granatum, "grained apple." The Romans gave it
the name of Punica, as the tree was introduced from Carthage.
It belongs to the natural order Myrtaceae (Myrtle), being,
however, rather a tall bush than a tree, The foliage is dark
green, the flowers are crimson, the fruit, which is about the
size of art orange, is red when which in Palestine is about the
middle of October. It contains a quantity of juice. Mention is
made in (Song of Solomon 8:2) of spiced wine of the juice of
the pomegranate. The rind is used in the manufacture of morocco
leather, and together with the bark is sometimes used
medicinally. Mr. Royle (Kitto's Cyc., art "Rimmon") states that
this tree is a native of Asia and is to be traced from Syria
through Persia, even to the mountains of northern India. The
pomegranate was early cultivated in Egypt; hence the complaint
of the Israelites in the wilderness of Zin, (Numbers 20:5) this
"is no place of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates." Carved
figures of the pomegranate adorned the tops of the pillars in
Solomon's temple, (1 Kings 7:18,20) etc.; and worked
representations of this fruit, in blue, purple and scarlet,
ornamented the hem of the robe of the ephod. (Exodus 28:33,34)
Pommels
only in (2 Chronicles 4:12,13) In (1 Kings 7:41) "bowls." The
word signifies convex projections belonging to the capitals of
pillars.
Pond
The ponds of Egypt, (Exodus 7:19; 13:5) were doubtless water
left by the inundation of the Nile. Ponds for fish mentioned in
(Isaiah 19:10)
Pontius Pilate
[[982]Pilate]
Pontus
a large district in the north of Asia Minor, extending along
the coast of the Pontus Euxinus Sea (Pontus), from which
circumstance the name was derived. It corresponds nearly to the
modern Trebizond. It is three times mentioned in the New
Testament-- (Acts 2:9; 18:2; 1 Peter 1:1) All these passages
agree in showing that there were many Jewish residents in the
district. As to the annals of Pontus, the one brilliant passage
of its history is the life of the great Mithridates. Under Nero
the whole region was made of Roman province, bearing the name
of Pontus. It was conquered by the Turks in A.D. 1461, and is
still under their dominion.
Pool
Pools, like the tanks of India, are in many parts of Palestine
and Syria the only resource for water during the dry season,
and the failure of them involves drought and calamity. (Isaiah
42:15) Of the various pools mentioned in Scripture, perhaps the
most celebrated are the pools of Solomon near Bethlehem called
by the Arabs el-Burak, from which an aqueduct was carried which
still supplies Jerusalem with wafer. (Ecclesiastes 2:6) Ecclus.
24:30, 31.
Poor
The general kindly spirit of the law toward the poor is
sufficiently shown by such passages as (15:7) for the reason
that (ver. 11) "the poor shall never cease out of the land."
Among the special enactments in their favor the following must
be mentioned:
+ The right of gleaning. (Leviticus 19:9,10; 24:19,21)
+ From the produce of the land in sabbatical years the poor and
the stranger were to have their portion. (Exodus 23:11;
Leviticus 25:6)
+ Re-entry upon land in the jubilee year, with the limitation
as to town homes. (Leviticus 25:25-30)
+ Prohibition of usury and of retention of pledges. (Exodus
22:25-27; Leviticus 25:3,5,37) etc.
+ Permanent bondage forbidden, and manumission of Hebrew
bondmen or bondwomen enjoined in the sabbatical and jubilee
years. (Leviticus 25:39-42,47-54; 15:12-15)
+ Portions from the tithes to be shared by the poor after the
Levites. (14:28; 26:12,13)
+ The poor to partake in entertainments at the feasts of Weeks
and Tabernacles. (16:11,14) see Nehe 8:10
+ Daily payment of wages. (Leviticus 19:13) Principles similar
to those laid down by Moses are inculcated in the New
Testament, as (Luke 3:11; 14:13; Acts 6:1; Galatians 2:10;
James 2:15)
Poplar
This is the rendering of the Hebrew word libneh, which occurs
in (Genesis 30:37) and Hose 4:13 Several authorities are in
favor of the rendering of the Authorized Version and think that
"white poplar" (Populus alba) is the tree denoted: others
understand the "storax tree" (Styrax officinale, Linn.). Both
poplars and storax or styrax trees are common in Palestine, and
either would suit the passages where the Hebrew term occurs.
Storax is mentioned in Ecclus. 24:15, together with other
aromatic substances. The Styrax officinale is a shrub from nine
to twelve feet high, with ovate leaves, which are white
underneath; the flowers are in racemes, and are white or
cream-colored.
Poratha
one of the ten sons of Haman slain by the Jews in Shushan the
palace. (Esther 9:8)
Porch
+ Ulam, or ulam . (1 Chronicles 28:11)
+ Misderon ulam, (Judges 3:23) strictly a vestibule, was
probably a sort of veranda chamber in the works of Solomon,
open in front and at the sides, but capable of being enclosed
with awnings or curtains. The porch, (Matthew 26:71) may have
been the passage from the street into the first court of the
house, in which, in eastern houses, is the mastabah or stone
bench, for the porter or persons waiting, and where also the
master of the house often receives visitors and transacts
business.
Porcius Festus
[[983]Festus, Porcius]
Porter
This word when used in the Authorized Version does not bear its
modern signification of a carrier of burdens, but denotes in
every case a gate-keeper, from the Latin portarius, the man who
attended to the porta or gate.
Possession
[[984]Demoniacs]
Post
+ Probably, as Gesenius argues, the door-case of a door,
including the lintel and side posts. The posts of the doors
of the temple were of olive wood. (1 Kings 6:33)
+ A courier or carrier of messages, used among other places in
(Job 9:25)
Pot
The term "pot" is applicable to so many sorts of vessels that
it can scarcely be restricted to any one in particular.
+ Asuc (2 Kings 4:2) the earthen jar, deep and narrow, without
handles, probably like the Roman and Egyptian amphora,
inserted in a stand of wood or stone.
+ Cheres, an earthen vessel for stewing or seething. (Leviticus
6:28; Ezekiel 4:9)
+ Dud, a vessel for culinary purposes, perhaps of smaller size.
(1 Samuel 2:14) The "pots" set before the Rachabites,
(Jeremiah 35:5) were probably bulging jars or bowls. The
water-pots of Cana appear to have been large amphorae, such
as are in use at the present day in Syria. These were of
stone or hard earthenware. The water-pot of the Samaritan
woman may have been a leathern bucket, such as Bedouin women
use.
Potiphar
an Egyptian name, also written Potipherah, signifies belonging
to the sun . Potiphar. with whom the history of Joseph is
connected is described as an officer of Pharaoh chief of the
executioners, an Egyptian." (Genesis 39:1) comp. Genesis37:36
(B.C. 1728.) He appears to have been a wealthy man. (Genesis
39:4-6) The view we have of Potiphar's household is exactly in
accordance with the representations on the monuments. When
Joseph was accused, his master contented himself with casting
him into prison. (Genesis 39:19,20) After this we hear no more
of Potiphar. [[985]Joseph]
Potipherah, Or Potipherah
was priest or prince of On, and his daughter Asenath was given
Joseph to wife by Pharaoh. (Genesis 41:45,50; 46:20) (B.C.
1715.)
Potsherd
also in Authorized Version "sherd," a broken piece of
earthenware. (Proverbs 26:23)
Pottage
[[986]Lentils]
Potters Field, The
a piece of ground which, according to the statement of St.
Matthew, (Matthew 27:7) was purchased by the Priests with the
thirty pieces of silver rejected by Judas, and converted into a
burial-place for Jews not belonging to the city.
[[987]Aceldama]
Pottery
The art of pottery is one of the most common and most ancient
of all manufactures. It is abundantly evident, both that the
Hebrews used earthenware vessels in the wilderness and that the
potter's trade was afterward carried on in Palestine. They had
themselves been concerned in the potter's trade in Egypt,
(Psalms 81:6) and the wall-paintings minutely illustrate the
Egyptian process. The clay, when dug, was trodden by men's feet
so as to form a paste, (Isaiah 41:25) Wisd. 15:7; then placed
by the potter on the wheel beside which he sat, and shaped by
him with his hands. How early the wheel came into use in
Palestine is not known, but it seems likely that it was adopted
from Egypt. (Isaiah 45:9; Jeremiah 15:3) The vessel was then
smoothed and coated with a glaze, and finally burnt in a
furnace. There was at Jerusalem a royal establishment of
potters, (1 Chronicles 4:23) from whose employment, and from
the fragments cast away in the process, the Potter's Field
perhaps received its name. (Isaiah 30:11)
Pound
+ A weight. [See [988]Weights And Measures AND [989]Measures]
+ A sum of money put in the Old Testament, (1 Kings 10:17; Ezra
2:69; Nehemiah 7:71) for the Hebrew maneh, worth in silver
about . In the parable of the ten pounds, (Luke 19:12-27) the
reference appears to be to a Greek pound, a weight used as a
money of account, of which sixty went to the talent. It was
worth to .
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Table of
Contents Praetorium
(in the Revised Version translated palace,) (Matthew 27:27;
John 18:28,33; 19:3) the headquarters of the Roman military
governor, wherever he happened to be. In time of peace some one
of the best buildings of the city which, was the residence of
the proconsul or praetor, was selected for this purpose. Thus
at Caesarea that of Herod the Great was occupied by Felix,
(Acts 23:35) and at Jerusalem the new palace erected by the
same prince was the residence of Pilate. After the Roman power
was established in Judea, a Roman guard was always maintained
in the Antonia. The praetorian camp at Rome, to which St. Paul
refers, (Philemon 1:13) was erected by the emperor Tiberius,
acting under the advice of Sejanus. It stood outside the walls,
at some distance short of the fourth milestone. St. Paul
appears to have been permitted, for the space of two years, to
lodge, so to speak, "within the rules" of the praetorium, (Acts
28:30) Although still under the custody of a soldier.
Praltite, The
Helez "the Paltite" is named in (2 Samuel 23:26) among David's
mighty men. (B.C. 1015.)
Prayer
The object of this article will be to touch briefly on--
+ The doctrine of Scripture as to the nature and efficacy of
prayer;
+ Its directions as to time, place and manner of prayer;
+ Its types and examples of prayer.
+ Scripture does not give any theoretical explanation of the
mystery which attaches to prayer. The difficulty of
understanding real efficacy arises chiefly from two sources:
from the belief that man lives under general laws, which in
all cases must be fulfilled unalterably; and the opposing
belief that he is master of his own destiny, and need pray
for no external blessing. Now, Scripture, while, by the
doctrine of spiritual influence it entirely disposes of the
latter difficulty, does not so entirely solve that part of
the mystery which depends on the nature of God. It places it
clearly before us, and emphasizes most strongly those
doctrines on which the difficulty turns. Yet while this is
so, on the other hand the instinct of prayer is solemnly
sanctioned and enforced on every page. Not only is its
subjective effect asserted, but its real objective efficacy,
as a means appointed by God for obtaining blessing, is both
implied and expressed in the plainest terms. Thus, as usual
in the case of such mysteries, the two apparently opposite
truths are emphasized, because they are needful: to man's
conception of his relation to God; their reconcilement is
not, perhaps cannot be, fully revealed. For, in fact, it is
involved in that inscrutable mystery which attends on the
conception of any free action of man as necessary for the
working out of the general laws of God's unchangeable will.
At the same time it is clearly implied that such a
reconcilement exists, and that all the apparently isolated
and independent exertions of man's spirit in prayer are in
some way perfectly subordinated to the one supreme will of
God, so as to form a part of his scheme of providence. It is
also implied that the key to the mystery lies in the fact of
man's spiritual unity with God in Christ, and of the
consequent gift of the Holy Spirit. So also is it said of the
spiritual influence of the Holy Ghost on each individual mind
that while "we know not what to pray for, "the indwelling"
Spirit makes intercession for the saints, according to the
will of God." (Romans 8:26,27) Here, as probably in still
other cases, the action of the Holy Spirit on the soul is to
free agents what the laws of nature are to things inanimate,
and is the power which harmonizes free individual action with
the universal will of God.
+ There are no directions as to prayer given in the Mosaic law:
the duty is rather taken for granted, as an adjunct to
sacrifice, than enforced or elaborated. It is hardly
conceivable that, even from the beginning public prayer did
not follow every public sacrifice. Such a practice is alluded
to in (Luke 1:10) as common; and in one instance, at the
offering of the first-fruits, it was ordained in a striking
form. (26:12-15) In later times it certainly grew into a
regular service both in the temple and in the synagogue. But,
besides this public prayer, it was the custom of all at
Jerusalem to go up to the temple, at regular hours if
possible, for private prayer, see (Luke 18:10; Acts 3:1) and
those who were absent were wont to "open their windows toward
Jerusalem," and pray "toward" the place of God's presence. (1
Kings 8:46-49; Psalms 5:7; 28:2; 138:2; Daniel 6:10) The
regular hours of prayer seem to have been three (see) (Psalms
55:17; Daniel 6:10) "the evening," that is the ninth hour
(Acts 3:1; 10:3) the hour of the evening sacrifice, (Daniel
9:21) the "morning," that is, the third hour (Acts 2:15) that
of the morning sacrifice; and the sixth hour, or "noonday."
Grace before meat would seem to have been a common practice.
See (Matthew 15:36; Acts 27:35) The posture of prayer among
the Jews seems to have been most often standing, (1 Samuel
1:26; Matthew 6:5; Mark 11:25; Luke 18:11) unless the prayer
were offered with especial solemnity and humiliation, which
was naturally expressed by kneeling, (1 Kings 8:54) comp.
2Chr 6:13; Ezra 9:5; Psal 95:8; Dani 6:10 Or prostration.
(Joshua 7:6; 1 Kings 18:42; Nehemiah 8:6)
+ The only form of prayer given for perpetual use in the Old
Testament is the one in (26:5-15) connected with the offering
of tithes and first-fruits, and containing in simple form the
important elements of prayer, acknowledgment of God's mercy,
self-dedication and prayer for future blessing. To this may
perhaps be added the threefold blessing of (Numbers 6:24-26)
couched as it is in a precatory form, and the short prayer of
Moses, (Numbers 10:35,36) at the moving and resting of the
cloud the former of which was the germ of the 68th Psalm. But
of the prayers recorded in the Old Testament the two most
remarkable are those of Solomon at the dedication of the
temple, (1 Kings 8:23-58) and of Joshua the high priest, and
his colleagues, after the captivity. (Nehemiah 9:5-38) It
appears from the question of the disciples in (Luke 11:1) and
from Jewish tradition, that the chief teachers of the day
gave special forms of prayer to their disciples as the badge
of their discipleship and the best fruits of their learning.
All Christian prayer is, of course, based on the Lord's
Prayer; but its spirit is also guided by that of his prayer
in Gethsemane and of the prayer recorded by St. John, (John
17:1) ... the beginning of Christ's great work of
intercession. The influence of these prayers is more
distinctly traced in the prayers contained in the epistles,
see (Romans 16:25-27; Ephesians 3:14-21; Philemon 1:3-11;
Colossians 1:9-15; Hebrews 13:20,21; 1 Peter 5:10,11) etc.,
than in those recorded in the Acts. The public prayer
probably in the first instance took much of its form and
style from the prayers of the synagogues. In the record on
prayer accepted and granted by God, we observe, as always, a
special adaptation to the period of his dispensation to which
they belong. In the patriarchal period, they have the simple
and childlike tone of domestic application for the ordinary
and apparently trivial incidents of domestic life. In the
Mosaic period they assume a more solemn tone and a national
bearing, chiefly that of direct intercession for the chosen
people. More rarely are they for individuals. A special class
are those which precede and refer to the exercise of
miraculous power. In the New Testament they have a more
directly spiritual hearing. It would seem the intention of
Holy Scripture to encourage all prayer more especially
intercession, in all relations and for all righteous objects.
Presents
[[990]Gift]
President
(sarac or sareca, only used (Daniel 6:1) ... the Chaldee
equivalent for Hebrew shter, probably from sara, Zend. a
"head"), a high officer in the Persian court, a chief, a
president, used of the three highest ministers.
Priest
The English word is derived from the Greek presbyter,
signifying an "elder" (Heb. cohen). Origin.--The idea of a
priesthood connects itself in all its forms, pure or corrupted,
with the consciousness, more or less distinct of sin. Men feel
that they have broken a law. The power above them is holier
than they are, and they dare not approach it. They crave for
the intervention of some one of whom they can think as likely
to be more acceptable than themselves. He must offer up their
prayers, thanksgivings, sacrifices. He becomes their
representative in "things pertaining unto God." He may become
also (though this does not always follow) the representative of
God to man. The functions of the priest and prophet may exist
in the same person. No trace of a hereditary or caste
priesthood meets us in the worship of the patriarchal age. Once
and once only does the word cohen meet us as belonging to a
ritual earlier than the time of Abraham. Melchizedek is "the
priest of the most high God." (Genesis 14:18) In the worship of
the patriarchs themselves, the chief of the family, as such,
acted as the priest. The office descended with the birthright,
and might apparently he transferred with it. When
established.--The priesthood was first established in the
family of Aaron, and all the sons of Aaron were priests. They
stood between the high priest on the one hand and the Levites
on the other. [HIGH PRIEST; LEVITES] The ceremony of their
consecration is described in HIGH PRIEST - 1986 (Exodus 29:1;
Leviticus 8:1) ... Dress.--The dress which the priests wore
during their ministrations consisted of linen drawers, with a
close-fitting cassock, also of linen, white, but with a diamond
or chess-board pattern on it. This came nearly to the feet, and
was to be worn in its garment shape. Comp. (John 19:23) The
white cassock was gathered round the body with a girdle of
needle work, in which, as in the more gorgeous belt of the high
priest, blue, purple and scarlet were intermingled with white,
and worked in the form of flowers. (Exodus 28:39,40; 39:2;
Ezekiel 44:17-19) Upon their heads the were to wear caps or
bonnets in the form of a cup-shaped flower, also of fine linen.
In all their acts of ministration they were to be bare footed.
Duties .--The chief duties of the priests were to watch over
the fire on the altar of burnt offering, and to keep it burning
evermore both by day and night, (Leviticus 6:12; 2 Chronicles
13:11) to feed the golden lamp outside the vail with oil
(Exodus 27:20,21; Leviticus 24:2) to offer the morning and
evening sacrifices, each accompanied with a meet offering and a
drink offering, at the door of the tabernacle. (Exodus
29:38-44) They were also to teach the children of Israel the
statutes of the Lord. (Leviticus 10:11; 33:10; 2 Chronicles
15:3; Ezekiel 44:23,24) During the journeys in the wilderness
it belonged to them to cover the ark and all the vessels of the
sanctuary with a purple or scarlet cloth before the Levites
might approach them. (Numbers 4:5-15) As the people started on
each days march they were to blow "an alarm" with long silver
trumpets. (Numbers 10:1-8) Other instruments of music might be
used by the more highly-trained Levites and the schools of the
prophets, but the trumpets belonged only to the priests, The
presence of the priests on the held of battle, (1 Chronicles
12:23,27; 2 Chronicles 20:21,22) led, in the later periods of
Jewish history, to the special appointment at such times of a
war priest. Other functions were hinted at in Deuteronomy which
might have given them greater influence as the educators and
civilizers of the people. They were to act (whether
individually or collectively does not distinctly appear) as a
court of appeal in the more difficult controversies in criminal
or civil cases. (17:8-13) It must remain doubtful however how
far this order kept its ground during the storms and changes
that followed, Functions such as these were clearly
incompatible with the common activities of men. Provision for
support .--This consisted--
+ Of one tenth of the tithes which the people paid to the
Levites, i.e. one per cent on the whole produce of the
country. (Numbers 18:26-28)
+ Of a special tithe every third year. (14:28; 26:12)
+ Of the redemption money, paid at the fixed rate of five
shekels a head, for the first-born of man or beast. (Numbers
18:14-19)
+ Of the redemption money paid in like manner for men or things
specially dedicated to the Lord. (Leviticus 27:5)
+ Of spoil, captives, cattle and the like, taken in war.
(Numbers 31:25-47)
+ Of the shew-bread, the flesh of the burnt offerings, peace
offerings, trespass offerings, (Leviticus 6:26,29; 7:6-10;
Numbers 18:8-14) and in particular the heave-shoulder and the
wave-breast. (Leviticus 10:12-15)
+ Of an undefined amount of the firstfruits of corn, wine and
oil. (Exodus 23:19; Leviticus 2:14; 26:1-10)
+ On their settlement in Canaan the priestly families had
thirteen cities assigned them, with "suburbs" or
pasture-grounds for their flocks. (Joshua 21:13-19) These
provisions were obviously intended to secure the religion of
Israel against the dangers of a caste of pauper priests,
needy and dependent, and unable to bear their witness to the
true faith. They were, on the other hand as far as possible
removed from the condition of a wealthy order. Coarses .--The
priesthood was divided into four and twenty "courses" or
orders, (1 Chronicles 24:1-19; 2 Chronicles 23:8; Luke 1:5)
each of which was to serve in rotation for one week, while
the further assignment of special services during the week
was determined by lot. (Luke 1:9) Each course appears to have
commenced its work on the Sabbath, the outgoing priests
taking the morning sacrifice, and leaving that of the evening
to their successors. (2 Chronicles 23:8) Numbers--If we may
accept the numbers given by Jewish writers as at all
trustworthy, the proportion of the priesthood population of
Palestine during the last century of their existence as an
order, must have been far greater than that of the clergy has
ever been in any Christian nation. Over and above those that
were scattered in the country and took their turn there were
not fewer than 24,000 stationed permanently at Jerusalem,and
12,000 at Jericho. It was almost inevitable that the great
mass of the order, under such circumstances, should sink in
character and reputation. The reigns of the two kings David
and Solomon were the culminating period of the glory of the
Jewish priesthood. It will be interesting to bring together
the few facts that indicate the position of the priests in
the New Testament period of their history. The number
scattered throughout Palestine was, as has been stated, very
large. Of these the greater number were poor and ignorant.
The priestly order, like the nation, was divided between
contending sects. In the scenes of the last tragedy of Jewish
history the order passes away without honor, "dying as a fool
dieth." The high priesthood is given to the lowest and vilest
of the adherents of the frenzied Zealots. Other priests
appear as deserting to the enemy. The destruction of
Jerusalem deprived the order at one blow of all but an
honorary distinction.
Prince, Princess
The only special uses of the word "prince" are--
+ "Princes of provinces" (1 Kings 20:14) who were probably
local governors or magistrates.
+ The "princes" mentioned in (Daniel 6:1) (see Esth 1:1) wore
the predecessors of the satraps of Darius Hystaspes. The word
princess is seldom used in the Bible, but the persons to
which it alludes-- "daughters of kings" are frequently
mentioned.
Principality
In several passages of the New Testament the term
"principalities and powers" appears to denote different orders
of angels,good or bad. See (Ephesians 6:12)
Prisca
(ancient), (2 Timothy 4:19) or Priscil'la (a diminutive from
Prisca), the wife of Aquila. [[991]Aquila] To what has been
said elsewhere under the head of [992]Aquila the following may
be added: We find that the name of the wife is placed before
that of the husband in (Romans 16:3; 2 Timothy 4:19) and
(according to some of the best MSS.) in (Acts 18:26) Hence we
should be disposed to conclude that Priscilla was the more
energetic character of the two. In fact we may say that
Priscilla is the example of what the married woman may do for
the general service of the Church, in conJunction with home
duties, as Phoebe is the type of the unmarried servant of the
Church, or deaconess.
Prison
[For imprisonment as a punishment, see [993]Punishments] It is
plain that in Egypt special places were used as prisons, and
that they were under the custody of a military officer.
(Genesis 40:3; 42:17) During the wandering in the desert we
read on two occasions of confinement "in ward"-- (Leviticus
24:12; Numbers 15:34) but as imprisonment was not directed by
the law, so we hear of none till the time of the kings, when
the prison appears as an appendage to the palace, or a special
part of it. (1 Kings 22:27) Private houses were sometimes used
as places of confinement. By the Romans the tower of Antoni,
was used as a prison at Jerusalem, (Acts 23:10) and at Caesarea
the praetorium of Herod. The royal prisons In those days were
doubtless managed after the Roman fashion, and chains, fetters
and stocks were used as means of confinement. See (Acts 16:24)
One of the readiest places for confinement was a dry or
partially-dry wall or pit. (Jeremiah 35:6-11)
Prochorus
(leader of the chorus), one of the seven deacons, being the
third of the list, and named next after Stephen and Philip.
(Acts 6:5)
Proconsul
(for, or in place of, the consul). At the division of the
provinces by Augustus, in the year B.C. 27, into senatorial and
imperial, the emperor assigned to the senate such portions of
territory as were peaceable and could be held without force of
arms. Those which he retained were called imperial, and were
governed by legates and procurators . [[994]Procurator] Over
the senatorial provinces the senate appointed by lot yearly an
officer, who was called "proconsul" and who exercised purely
proconsul, civil functions. The provinces were in consequence
called "proconsular."
Procurator
The Greek agemon, rendered "governor" in the Authorized
Version, is applied in the New Testament to the officer who
presided over the imperial province of Judea. It is used of
Pontius Pilate, (Matthew 27:1) ... of Felix, Acts 23, 24, and
of Festus. (Acts 26:30) It is explained under [995]Proconsul
that after the battle of Actium, B.C. 27, the provinces of the
Roman empire were divided by Augustus into two portions, giving
some to the senate and reserving to himself the rest. The
imperial provinces were administered by legali . No quaestor
came into the emperor's provinces, but the property and
revenues of the imperial treasury were administered by
procuratores. Sometimes a province was governed by a procurator
with the functions of a legatus. This was especially the case
with the smaller provinces an the outlying districts of a
larger province; and such is the relation in which Judea stood
to Syria. The headquarters of the procurator were at Caesarea,
(Acts 23:23) where he had a judgment seat, (Acts 25:6) in the
audience chamber, (Acts 25:23) and was assisted by a council
(Acts 25:12) whom he consulted in cases of difficulty. He was
attended by a cohort as body-guard, (Matthew 27:27) and
apparently went up to Jerusalem at the time of the high
festivals, and there resided at the palace of Herod, in which
was the praetorium or "judgment hall." (Matthew 27:27; Mark
15:16) comp. Acts 23:35
Prophet
The ordinary Hebrew word for prophet is nabi, derived from a
verb signifying "to bubble forth" like a fountain; hence the
word means one who announces or pours forth the declarations of
God. The English word comes from the Greek prophetes
(profetes), which signifies in classical Greek one who speaks
for another, especially one who speaks for a god, and so
interprets his will to man; hence its essential meaning is "an
interpreter." The use of the word in its modern sense as "one
who predicts" is post-classical. The larger sense of
interpretation has not, however, been lost. In fact the English
word ways been used in a closer sense. The different meanings
or shades of meanings in which the abstract noun is employed in
Scripture have been drawn out by Locke as follows: "Prophecy
comprehends three things: prediction; singing by the dictate of
the Spirit; and understanding and explaining the mysterious,
hidden sense of Scripture by an immediate illumination and
motion of the Spirit." Order and office .--The sacerdotal order
was originally the instrument by which the members of the
Jewish theocracy were taught and governed in things spiritual.
Teaching by act and teaching by word were alike their task. But
during the time of the judges, the priesthood sank into a state
of degeneracy, and the people were no longer affected by the
acted lessons of the ceremonial service. They required less
enigmatic warnings and exhortations, under these circumstances
a new moral power was evoked the Prophetic Order. Samuel
himself Levite of the family of Kohath, (1 Chronicles 6:28) and
almost certainly a priest, was the instrument used at once for
effecting a reform in the sacerdotal order (1 Chronicles 9:22)
and for giving to the prophets a position of importance which
they had never before held. Nevertheless it is not to be
supposed that Samuel created the prophetic order as a new thing
before unknown. The germs both of the prophetic and of the
regal order are found in the law as given to the Israelites by
Moses, (13:1; 18:20; 17:18) but they were not yet developed,
because there was not yet the demand for them. Samuel took
measures to make his work of restoration permanent as well as
effective for the moment. For this purpose he instituted
companies or colleges of prophets. One we find in his lifetime
at Ramah, (1 Samuel 19:19,20) others afterward at Bethel, (2
Kings 2:3) Jericho, (2 Kings 2:2,5) Gilgal; (2 Kings 4:38) and
elsewhere. (2 Kings 6:1) Their constitution and object similar
to those of theological colleges. Into them were gathered
promising students, and here they were trained for the office
which they were afterward destined to fulfill. So successful
were these institutions that from the time of Samuel to the
closing of the canon of the Old Testament there seems never to
have been wanting due supply of men to keep up the line of
official prophets. Their chief subject of study was, no doubt,
the law and its interpretation; oral, as distinct from
symbolical, teaching being thenceforward tacitly transferred
from the priestly to the prophetic order. Subsidiary subjects
of instruction were music and sacred poetry, both of which had
been connected with prophecy from the time of Moses (Exodus
15:20) and the judges. (Judges 4:4; 5:1) But to belong to the
prophetic order and to possess the prophetic gift are not
convertible terms. Generally, the inspired prophet came from
the college of prophets, and belonged to prophetic order; but
this was not always the case. Thus Amos though called to the
prophetic office did not belong to the prophetic order. (Amos
7:14) The sixteen prophets whose books are in the canon have
that place of honor because they were endowed with the
prophetic gift us well as ordinarily (so far as we know)
belonging to the prophetic order. Characteristics .--What then
are the characteristics of the sixteen prophets thus called and
commissioned and intrusted with the messages of God to his
people?
+ They were the national poets of Judea.
+ They were annalists and historians. A great portion of
Isaiah, of Jeremiah, of Daniel of Jonah, of Haggai, is direct
or in direct history.
+ They were preachers of patriotism,--their patriotism being
founded on the religious motive.
+ They were preachers of morals and of spiritual religion. The
system of morals put forward by the prophets, if not higher
or sterner or purer than that of the law, is more plainly
declared, and with greater, because now more needed,
vehemence of diction.
+ They were extraordinary but yet authorized exponents of the
law.
+ They held a pastoral or quasi-pastoral office.
+ They were a political power in the state.
+ But the prophets were something more than national poets and
annalists, preachers of patriotism moral teachers, exponents
of the law, pastors and politicians. Their most essential
characteristic is that they were instruments of revealing
God's will to man, as in other ways, so specially by
predicting future events, and in particular foretelling the
incarnation of the Lord Jesus Christ and the redemption
effected by him. We have a series of prophecies which are so
applicable to the person and earthly life of Jesus Christ as
to be thereby shown to have been designed to apply to him.
And if they were designed to apply to him, prophetical
prediction is proved. Objections have, been urged. We notice
only one, vis., vagueness. It has been said that the
prophecies are too darkly and vaguely worded to be proved
predictive by the events which they are alleged to foretell.
But to this might be answered,
+ That God never forces men to believe, but that there is such
a union of definiteness and vagueness in the prophecies as to
enable those who are willing to discover the truth, while the
willfully blind are not forcibly constrained to see it.
+ That, had the prophecies been couched in the form of direct
declarations, their fulfillment would have thereby been
rendered impossible or at least capable of frustration.
+ That the effect of prophecy would have been far less
beneficial to believers, as being less adapted to keep them
in a state of constant expectation.
+ That the Messiah of revelation could not be so clearly
portrayed in his varied character as God and man, as prophet,
priest and king, if he had been the mere teacher."
+ That the state of the prophets, at the time of receiving the
divine revelation, was such as necessarily to make their
predictions fragmentary figurative, and abstracted from the
relations of time.
+ That some portions of the prophecies were intended to be of
double application, and some portions to be understood only
on their fulfillment, Comp. (John 14:29; Ezekiel 36:33)
Proselyte
(a stranger, a new comer), the name given by the Jews to
foreigners who adopted the Jewish religion. The dispersion of
the Jews in foreign countries, which has been spoken of
elsewhere [[996]Dispersion, The Jews Of The, THE], enabled them
to make many converts to their faith. The converts who were
thus attracted joined, with varying strictness, in the worship
of the Jews. In Palestine itself, even Roman centurions learned
to love the conquered nation built synagogues for them, (Luke
7:5) fasted and prayed, and gave alms after the pattern of the
strictest Jews, (Acts 10:2,30) and became preachers of the new
faith to the soldiers under them. (Acts 10:7) Such men, drawn
by what was best in Judaism were naturally among the readiest
receivers of the new truth which rose out of it, and became, in
many cases, the nucleus of a Gentile Church. Proselytism had,
however, its darker side. The Jews of Palestine were eager to
spread their faith by the same weapons as those with which they
had defended it. The Idumaeans had the alternative offered them
by John Hyrcanus of death, exile or circumcision. The Idumeans
were converted in the same way by Aristobulus. Where force was
not in their power, they obtained their ends by the most
unscrupulous fraud. Those who were most active in proselytizing
were precisely those from whose teaching all that was most true
and living had departed. The vices of the Jew were engrafted on
the vices of the heathen. A repulsive casuistry released the
convert from obligations which he had before recognized, while
in other things he was bound hand and fool to an unhealthy
superstition. It was no wonder that he became "twofold more the
child of hell," (Matthew 23:15) than the Pharisees themselves.
We find in the Talmud a distinction between proselytes of the
gate and proselytes of righteousness,
+ The term proselytes of the gate was derived from the
frequently occurring description in the law the stranger that
is within (Exodus 20:10) etc. Converts of thy gates this
class were not bound by circumcision and the other special
laws of the Mosaic code. It is doubtful however whether the
distinction made in the Talmud ever really existed.
+ The proselytes of righteousness, known also as proselytes of
the covenant, were perfect Israelites. We learn from the
Talmud that, in addition to circumcision, baptism was also
required to complete their admission to the faith. The
proselyte was placed in a tank or pool up to his neck in
water. His teachers, who now acted as his sponsors, repeated
the great commandments of the law. The baptism was followed
as long as the temple stood, by the offering or corban.
Proverbs, Book Of
The title of this book in Hebrew is taken from its first word,
mashal, which originally meant "a comparison." It is sometimes
translated parable, sometimes proverb as here. The
superscriptions which are affixed to several portions of the
book, in chs. (Proverbs 1:1; 10:1; 25:1) attribute the
authorship of those portions to Solomon the son of David, king
of Israel. With the exception of the last two chapters, which
are distinctly assigned to other author it is probable that the
statement of the superscriptions is in the main correct, and
that the majority of the proverbs contained in the book were
uttered or collected by Solomon. Speaking roughly, the book
consists of three main divisions, with two appendices:--
+ Chs. 1-9 form a connected didactic Wisdom is praised and the
youth exhorted to devote himself to her. This portion is
preceded by an introduction and title describing the
character and general aim of the book.
+ Chs. 10-24 with the title "The Proverbs of Solomon," consist
of three parts: (Proverbs 10:1-22; Proverbs 10:16) a
collection of single proverbs and detached sentences out of
the region of moral teaching and worldly prudence; (Proverbs
22:17-24; Proverbs 22:21) a more connected didactic poem,
with an introduction, (Proverbs 22:17-22) which contains
precepts of righteousness and prudence; (Proverbs 24:23-34)
with the inscription "These also belong to the wise," a
collection of unconnected maxims, which serve as an appendix
to the preceding. Then follows the third division chs. 25-29,
which, according to the superscription, professes to be
collection of Solomon's proverbs, consisting of single
sentences, which the men of the court of Hezekiah copied out.
The first appendix, ch. 30, "The words of Agur the son of
Jakeh," is a collection of partly proverbial and partly
enigmatical sayings; the second, ch. 31, is divided into two
parts, "The words of King Lemuel," vs. 1-6, and an
alphabetical acrostic in praise of a virtuous woman, which
occupies the rest of the chapter. Who was Agur and who was
Jakeh, are questions which have been often asked and never
satisfactorily answered. All that can be said of the first is
that he was an unknown Hebrew sage, the son of an equally
unknown Jakeh, and that he lived after the time of Hezekiah.
Lemuel, like Agur, is unknown. It is even uncertain whether
he is to be regarded as a real personage, or whether the name
is merely symbolical. The Proverbs are frequently quoted or
alluded to in the New Testament and the canonicity of the
book thereby confirmed. The following is a list of the
principal passages:-- (Proverbs 1:16) compare Roma 3:10,15
(Proverbs 3:7) compare Roma 12:16 (Proverbs 3:11,12) compare
Hebr 12:5,6, see also Reve 3:19 (Proverbs 3:34) compare Jame
4:6 (Proverbs 10:12) compare 1Pet 4:8 (Proverbs 11:31)
compare 1Pet 4:18 (Proverbs 17:13) compare Roma 12:17; 1The
5:15; 1Pet 3:9 (Proverbs 17:27) compare Jame 1:19 (Proverbs
20:9) compare 1Joh 1:8 (Proverbs 20:20) compare Matt 15:4;
Mark 7:10 (Proverbs 22:8) (LXX.), compare 2Cor 9:7 (Proverbs
25:21,22) compare, Roma 12:20 (Proverbs 26:11) compare, 2Pet
2:22 (Proverbs 27:1) compare, Jame 4:13,14
Province
+ In the Old Testament this word appears in connection with the
wars between Ahab and Ben-hadad. (1 Kings 20:14,15,19) The
victory of the former is gained chiefly "by the young"
probably men of the princes of the provinces the chiefs: of
tribes in the Gilead country.
+ More commonly the word is used of the divisions of the
Chaldean kingdom. (Daniel 2:49; 3:1,30) and the Persian
kingdom. (Ezra 2:1; Nehemiah 7:6; Esther 1:1,22; 2:3) etc. In
the New Testament we are brought into contact with the
administration of the provinces of the Roman empire. The
classification of provinces supposed to need military control
and therefore placed under the immediate government of the
Caesar, and those still belonging theoretically to the
republic and administered by the senate, and of the latter
again into proconsular and praetorian, is recognized, more or
less distinctly, in the Gospels and the Acts.
[[997]Proconsul; [998]Procurator] The strategoi of (Acts
16:22) ("magistrates," Authorized Version), on the other hand
were the duumviri or praetors of a Roman colony. The right of
any Roman citizen to appeal from a provincial governor to the
emperor meets us as asserted by St. Paul. (Acts 25:11) In the
council of (Acts 25:12) we recognize the assessors who were
appointed to take part in the judicial functions of the
governor.
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Table of
Contents Psalms, Book Of
The present Hebrew name of the book is Tehill'im, "Praises;"
but in the actual superscriptions of the psalms the word
Tehillah is applied only to one, (Psalms 145:1) ... which is
indeed emphatically a praise-hymn. The LXX. entitled them
psalmoi or "psalms," i.e., lyrical pieces to be sung to a
musical instrument. The Christian Church obviously received the
Psalter from the Jews not only as a constituent portion of the
sacred volume of Holy Scripture, but also as the liturgical
hymn-book which the Jewish Church had regularly used in the
temple. Division of the Psalms .--The book contains 150 psalms,
and may be divided into five great divisions or books, which
must have been originally formed at different periods. Book I.
is, by the superscriptions, entirely Davidic nor do we find in
it a trace of any but David's authorship. We may well believe
that the compilation of the book was also David's work. Book
II. appears by the date of its latest psalm, (Psalms 46:1) ...
to have been compiled in the reign of King Hezekiah. It would
naturally comprise, 1st, several or most of the Levitical
psalms anterior to that date; and 2d, the remainder of the
psalms of David previously uncompiled. To these latter the
collector after properly appending the single psalm of Solomon
has affixed the notice that "the prayers of David the son of
Jesse are ended." (Psalms 72:20) Book III., the interest of
which centers in the times of Hezekiah stretches out, by its
last two psalms, to the reign of Manasseh: it was probably
compiled in the reign of Josiah. It contains seventeen psalms,
from Psal 73-89 eleven by Asaph, four by the sons of Horah, one
(86) by David, and one by Ethan. Book IV. contains the
remainder of the psalms up to the date of the captivity, There
are seventeen, from Psal 90-106--one by Moses, two by David,
and the rest anonymous. Book V., the psalms of the return,
contains forty-four, from Psal 107-180--fifteen by David, one
by Solomon and the rest anonymous. There is nothing to
distinguish these two books from each other in respect of
outward decoration or arrangement and they may have been
compiled together in the days of Nehemiah. Connection of the
Psalms with Israelitish history .--The psalm of Moses Psal 90,
which is in point of actual date the earliest, faithfully
reflects the long, weary wanderings, the multiplied
provocations and the consequent punishments of the wilderness.
It is, however, with David that Israelitish psalmody may be
said virtually to commence. Previous mastery over his harp had
probably already prepared the way for his future strains, when
the anointing oil of Samuel descended upon him, and he began to
drink in special measure, from that day forward, of the Spirit
of the Lord. It was then that, victorious at home over the
mysterious melancholy of Saul and in the held over the vaunting
champion of the Philistine hosts, he sang how from even babes
and sucklings God had ordained strength because of his enemies.
Psal 8. His next psalms are of a different character; his
persecutions at the hands of Saul had commenced. When David's
reign has begun, it is still with the most exciting incidents
of his history, private or public, that his psalms are mainly
associated. There are none to which the period of his reign at
Hebron can lay exclusive claim. But after the conquest of
Jerusalem his psalmody opened afresh with the solemn removal of
the ark to Mount Zion; and in Psal 24-29 which belong together,
we have the earliest definite instance of David's systematic
composition or arrangement of psalms for public use. Even of
those psalms which cannot be referred to any definite occasion,
several reflect the general historical circumstances of the
times. Thus Psal 9 is a thanksgiving for the deliverance of the
land of Israel from its former heathen oppressors. Psal 10 is a
prayer for the deliverance of the Church from the highhanded
oppression exercised from within. The succeeding psalms dwell
on the same theme, the virtual internal heathenism by which the
Church of God was weighed clown. So that there remain very few
e.g. Psal 15-17,19,32 (with its choral appendage, 23), 37 of
which some historical account may not be given. A season of
repose near the close of his reign induced David to compose his
grand personal thanksgiving for the deliverances of his whole
life, Psal 18 the date of which is approximately determined by
the place at which it ia inserted in the history. (2 Samuel
22:1) ... It was probably at this period that he finally
arranged for the sanctuary service that collection of his
psalms which now constitutes the first book of the Psalter. The
course of David's reign was not, however, as yet complete. The
solemn assembly convened by him for the dedication of the
materials of the future temple, 1Chr 28, 29, would naturally
call forth a renewal of his best efforts to glorify the God of
Israel in psalms; and to this occasion we doubtless owe the
great festal hymns, Psal 65-68, containing a large review of
the past history, present position and prospective glories of
God's chosen people. The supplications of Psal 69, suit best
with the renewed distress occasioned by the sedition of
Adonijah. Psal 71 to which Psal 70 a fragment of a former
psalm, is introductory, forms David's parting strain. Yet that
the psalmody of Israel may not seem finally to terminate with
hint, the glories of the future are forthwith anticipated by
his son in Psal 72. The great prophetical ode, Psal 45,
connects itself most readily with the splendors of
Jehoshaphat's reign. Psal 42-44, 74 are best assigned to the
reign of Ahaz. The reign of Hezekiah is naturally rich in
psalmody, Psal 46,73,75,76 connect themselves with the
resistance to the supremacy of the Assyrians and the divine
destruction of their host. We are now brought to a series of
psalms of peculiar interest, springing out of the political and
religious history of the,separated ten tribes. In date of
actual composition they commence before the times of Hezekiah.
The earliest is probably Psal 80 A supplication for the
Israelitish people at the time of the Syrian oppression. All
these psalms--80-83-- are referred by their superscriptions to
the Levite singers, and thus beer witness to the efforts of the
Levites to reconcile the two branches of the chosen nation. The
captivity of Manasseh himself proved to be but temporary; but
the sentence which his sins had provoked upon Judah and
Jerusalem still remained to be executed, and precluded the hope
that God's salvation could be revealed till after such an
outpouring of his judgments as the nation had never yet known.
Labor and sorrow must be the lot of the present generation;
through these mercy might occasionally gleam, but the glory
which was eventually to be manifested must be for posterity
alone. The psalms of Book IV.--bear generally the impress of
this feeling. We pass to Book V. Psal 107 is the opening psalm
of the return, sung probably at the first feast of tabernacles.
Ezra 3 A directly historical character belongs to Psal 120-134,
styled in our Authorized Version "Songs of Degrees." Internal
evidence refers these to the period when the Jews under
Nehemiah were, in the very face of the enemy, repairing the
walls of Jerusalem and the title may well signify "songs of
goings up upon the walls," the psalms being from their brevity,
well adapted to be sung by the workmen and guards while engaged
in their respective duties. Psal 139 is a psalm of the new
birth of Israel from the womb of the Babylonish captivity, to a
life of righteousness; Psal 140-143 may be a picture of the
trials to which the unrestored exiles were still exposed in the
realms of the Gentiles. Henceforward, as we approach the close
of the Psalter, its strains rise in cheerfulness; and it
fittingly terminates with Psal 147-150 which were probably sung
on the occasion of the thanksgiving procession of Nehe 12,
after the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem had been
completed. Moral characteristics of the Psalms .--Foremost
among these meets us, undoubtedly, the universal recourse to
communion with God. Connected with this is the faith by which
the psalmist everywhere lives in God rather than in himself. It
is of the essence of such faith that his view of the
perfections of God should be true and vivid. The Psalter
describes God as he is: it glows with testimonies to his power
and providence, his love and faithfulness, his holiness and
righteousness. The Psalms not only set forth the perfections of
God; they proclaim also the duty of worshipping him by the
acknowledgment and adoration of his perfections. They encourage
all outward rites and means of worship. Among these they
recognize the ordinance of sacrifice as in expression of the
worshipper's consecration of himself to God's service. But not
the less do they repudiate the outward rite when separated from
that which it was designed to express. Similar depth is
observable in the view taken by the psalmists of human sin. In
regard to the law, the psalmist, while warmly acknowledging its
excellence, feels yet that it cannot so effectually guide his
own unassisted exertions as to preserve him from error Psal 19.
The Psalms bear repeated testimony to the duty of instructing
other in the ways of holiness. Psal 32,34, 51 This brings us to
notice, lastly, the faith of the psalmists in righteous
recompense to all men according to their deeds. Psal 37, etc.
Prophetical character of the Psalms .--The moral struggle
between godliness and ungodliness, so vividly depicted in the
Psalms, culminates in Holy Scripture, in the life of the
Incarnate Son of God upon earth. It only remains to show that
the Psalms themselves definitely anticipated this culmination.
Now there are in the Psalter at least three psalms of which the
interest evidently centers in a person distinct from the
speaker, and which, since they cannot without violence to the
language be interpreted of any but the Messiah, may be termed
directly and exclusively Messianic. We refer to Psal 2,45,110,
to which may perhaps be added, Psal 72. It would be strange if
these few psalms stood, in their prophetical significance
absolutely alone among the rest. And hence the impossibility of
viewing the psalms generally, notwithstanding the drapery in
which they are outwardly clothed, as simply the past devotions
of the historical David or the historical Israel. The national
hymns of Israel are indeed also prospective; but in general
they anticipate rather the struggles and the triumphs of the
Christian Church than those of Christ himself.
Psaltery
This was a stringed instrument of music to accompany the voice.
The Hebrew nabel or nebel is so rendered in the Authorized
Version in all passages where if occurs, except in (Isaiah
5:12; 14:11; 22:24), marg.; (Amos 5:23; 6:6) where it is
translated viol . The ancient viol was a six-stringed guitar.
In the Prayer Book version of the Psalms the Hebrew word is
rendered "lute." This instrument resembled the guitar, but was
superior in tone, being larger, and having a convex back,
somewhat like the vertical section of a gourd, or more nearly
resembling that of a pear. These three instruments, the
psaltery or sautry, the viol and lute, are frequently
associated in the old English poets and were clearly
instruments resembling each other though still different. The
Greek psalterium (psalterion), from which our word is derived,
denotes an instrument played with the fingers instead of a
plectrum or quill, the verb being used of twanging the
bow-string. It is impossible to say positively with what
instrument the nebel of the Hebrew exactly corresponded, From
the fact that nebel in Hebrew also signifies a wine-bottle or
skin it has been conjectured that the term when applied to a
musical instrument denotes a kind of bagpipe. The psalteries of
David were made of cypress, (2 Samuel 6:5) those of Solomon of
algum Or almug trees. (2 Chronicles 9:11) Among the instruments
of the band which played before Nebuchadnezzar's golden image
on the plains of Dura, we again meet with the psaltery. (Daniel
3:6,10,15) pesanterin .
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Table of
Contents Ptolemaeus, Or Ptolemy
was the common name of the Greek dynasty of Egyptian kings.
PTOLEMAEUS I. SOTER, the son of Lagus, a Macedonian of low
rank, distinguished himself greatly during the campaigns of
Alexander; at whose death he secured for himself the government
of Egypt, where he proceeded at once to lay the foundations of
a kingdom, B.C. 323. He abdicated in favor of his youngest son,
Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, two years before his death which took
place in B.C. 283. Ptolemy Soter is described very briefly in
Daniel, (Daniel 11:6) as one of those who should receive part
of the empire of Alexander when it was "divided toward the four
winds of heaven." PTOLEMAEUS II. PHILADELPHUS, B.C. 285-247,
the youngest son of Ptolemy I., was made king two years before
his father's death, to confirm the irregular succession. The
conflict between Egypt and Syria was renewed during his reign
in consequence of the intrigue of his half brother Magas.
Ptolemy bestowed liberal encouragement on literature and
science, founding the great library and museum at Alexandria,
and gathered about him many men of learning, as the poet
Theocritus, the geometer Euclid and the astronomer Aratua. This
reign was a critical epoch for the development of Judaism, as
it was for the intellectual history of the ancient world. The
critical faculty was called forth in place of the creative, and
learning in some sense supplied the place of original
speculation. It was impossible on the Jew who was now become us
true a citizen of the world as the Greek, should remain passive
in the conflict of opinions. It is enough now to observe the
greatness of the consequences involved in the union of Greek
language with Jewish thought. From this time the Jew was
familiarized with the great types of western literature, and in
some degree aimed at imitating them. A second time and in new
fashion Egypt disciplined a people of God. It first impressed
upon a nation the firm unity of a family and then in due time
reconnected a matured people with the world from which it had
been called out. PTOLEMAEUS III. EUERGETES, B.C. 247-222, was
the eldest son of Ptolemy Philadelphus and brother of Berenice
the wife of Antiochus II. The repudiation and murder of his
sister furnished him with an occasion for invading Syria, cir.
B.C. 246. (Daniel 11:7) He extended his conquests as far as
Antioch, and then eastward to Babylon, but was recalled to
Egypt by tidings of seditions which had broken out there. His
success was brilliant and complete. He carried "captives into
Egypt their gods of the conquered nations, with their princes
and with their precious vessels of silver and of gold." (Daniel
11:8) This capture of sacred trophies earned for the king the
name Euergetes-- "Benefactor." After his return to Egypt, cir.
B.C. 243 he suffered a great part of the conquered provinces to
fall again under the power of Seleucus. PTOLEMAEUS IV.
PHILOPATOR, B.C. 222-205. After the death of Ptolemy Euergetes
the line of the Ptolemies rapidly degenerated. Ptolemy
Philopator, his eldest son, who succeeded him, was to the last
degree sensual, effeminate and debased. But externally his
kingdom retained its power and splendor and when circumstances
forced him to action. Ptolemy himself showed ability not
unworthy of his race. The description of the campaign of Raphia
(B.C. 217) in the book of Daniel gives a vivid description of
his character. (Daniel 11:10-12) cf. Macc. 1:1-3. After
offering in the temple at Jerusalem sacrifices for the success
they achieved, he attempted to enter the sanctuary. A sudden
paralysis hindered his design; but when he returned to
Alexandria he determined to inflict on the Alexandrine Jews the
vengeance for his disappointment. He was succeeded by his only
child, Ptolemy V. Epiphanes who was at the time only four or
five years old. PTOLEMAEUS V. EPIPHANES, B.C. 205-181. The
reign of Ptolemy Epiphanes was a critical epoch in the history
of the Jews. The rivalry between the Syrian and Egyptian
parties, some time divided the people, came to an open rupture
in the struggles which marked his minority. In the strong
language of Daniel "The robbers of the people exalted
themselves to establish the vision." (Daniel 11:14) The
accession of Ptolemy and the confusion of a disputed regency
furnished a favorable opportunity for foreign invasion. "Many
stood up against the king of the south" under Antiochus the
Great and Philip III of Macedonia, who formed a league for the
dismemberment of his kingdom. "So the king of the north
[Antiochus] came, and cast up a mount, and took the most fenced
city [Sidon], and the arms of the south did not withstand" [at
Paneas B.C. 198]. (Daniel 11:14,15) The Romans interfered, and
in order to retain the provinces of Coele-Syria, Phoenicia and
Judea, Antiochus "gave him [Ptolemy] a young maiden" [his
daughter Cleopatra as his betrothed wife]. (Daniel 11:27) But
in the end his policy only partially succeeded. After the
marriage of Ptolemy and Cleopatra was consummated B.C. 193,
(Cleopatra, did "not stand on his side," but supported her
husband in maintaining the alliance with Rome. The disputed
provinces, however remained in the possession of Antiochus and
Ptolemy was poisoned at the time when he was preparing an
expedition to recover them from Seleucus, the unworthy
successor of Antiochus. PTOLEMAEUS VI. PHILOMETOR, B.C.
181-145. On the death of Ptolemy Epiphanes, his wife Cleopatra
held the regency for her young son, Ptolemy Philometor, and
preserved peace with Syria till she died, B.C. 173. The
government then fell into unworthy hands, and an attempt was
made to recover Syria. Comp. 2 Macc. 4:21. Antiochus Epiphanes
seems to have made the claim a pretext for invading Egypt. The
generals of Ptolemy were defeated near Pelusium, probably at
the close of B.C. 171, 1 Macc. 1:16 ff; and in the next year
Antiochus, having secured the person of the young king, reduced
almost the whole of Egypt. Comp. 2 Macc. 5:1. Meanwhile Ptolemy
Euergetes II., the younger brother of Ptolemy Philometor,
assumed the supreme power at Alexandris; and Antiochus, under
the pretext of recovering the crown for Philometor, besieged
Alexandria in B.C. 169. By this time, however, his selfish
designs were apparent: the brothers were reconciled, and
Antiochus was obliged to acquiesce for the time in the
arrangement which they made. But while doing so he prepared for
another invasion of Egypt, and was already approaching
Alexandria when he was met by the Roman embassy led by C.
Popillius Laenas, who, in the name of the Roman senate insisted
on his immediate retreat (B.C.168), a command which the late
victory at Pydna made it impossible to disobey. These
campaigns, which are intimately connected with the visits of
Antiochus to Jerusalem in B.C. 170, 168, are briefly described
in (Daniel 11:25,30) The whole of Syria was afterward subdued
by Ptolemy, and he was crowned at Antioch king of Egypt and
Asia. 1 Macc. 11:13. Alexander, a rival claimant, attempted to
secure the crown, but was defeated and afterward put to death
by Ptolemy. But the latter did not long enjoy his success. He
fell from his horse in the battle and died within a few days. 1
Macc. 11:18. Ptolemy Philometor is the last king of Egypt who
is noticed in sacred history, and his reign was marked also by
the erection of the temple at Leontopolis.
Ptolemais
[[999]Accho]
Ptolemee, Or Ptolemeus
+ "The son of Dorymenes," 1 Macc. 3:38; 2 Macc. 4:45; comp.
Polyb. v, 61, a courtier who possessed great influence with
Antiochus Epiphanes.
+ The son of Agesarchus, a Megalopolitan, surnamed Macron, 2
Macc. 10:12, who was governor of Cyprus during the minority
of Ptolemy Philometor. He afterward deserted the Egyptian
service to join Antiochus Epiphanes. He stood in the favor of
Antiochus, and received from him the government of Phoenicia
and Coele-Syria. 2 Macc 8:8; 10:11,12. On the accession of
Antiochus Eupator his conciliatory policy toward the Jews
brought him into suspicion at court. He was deprived of his
government, and in consequence of this disgrace he poisoned
himself, cir. B.C. 164. 2 Macc. 10:13.
+ The son of Abuhus, who married the daughter of Simon the
Maccabee. He was a man of great wealth, and being invested
with the government of the district of Jericho, formed the
design of usurping the sovereignty of Judea.
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Table of
Contents Pua
properly Puvvah. Phuvah the son of Issachar. (Numbers 26:23)
(B.C. 1452.)
Puah
(splendid).
+ The father of Tola, a man of the tribe of Issachar and judge
of Israel after Abimelech. (Judges 10:1) (B.C. 1211.)
+ The son of Issachar, (1 Chronicles 7:1) elsewhere called
Phuvah and Pua.
+ One of the two midwives to whom Pharaoh gave instructions to
kill the Hebrew male children at their birth. (Exodus 1:15)
(B.C. 1571.)
Publican
The class designated by this word in the New Testament were
employed as collectors of the Roman revenue. The Roman senate
farmed the vectigalia (direct taxes) and the portorin (customs)
to capitalists who undertook to pay a given sum into the
treasury (in publicum), and so received the name of publicani .
Contracts of this kind fell naturally into the hands of the
equites, as the richest class of Romans. They appointed
managers, under whom were the portitores, the actual
custom-house officers, who examined each bale of goods,
exported or imported, assessed its value more or less
arbitrarily, wrote out the ticket, and enforced payment. The
latter were commonly natives of the province in which they were
stationed as being brought daily into contact with all classes
of the population. The name pubicani was used popularly, and in
the New Testament exclusively, of the portitores . The system
was essentially a vicious one. The portitores were encouraged
in the most vexatious or fraudulent exactions and a remedy was
all but impossible. They overcharged whenever they had an
opportunity, (Luke 3:13) they brought false charges of
smuggling in the hope of extorting hush-money (Luke 19:8) they
detained and opened letters on mere suspicion. It was the
basest of all livelihoods. All this was enough to bring the
class into ill favor everywhere. In Judea and Galilee there
were special circumstances of aggravation. The employment
brought out all the besetting vices of the Jewish character.
The strong feeling of many Jews as to the absolute unlawfulness
of paying tribute at all made matters worse. The scribes who
discussed the question, (Matthew 22:15) for the most part
answered it in the negative. In addition to their other faults,
accordingly, the publicans of the New Testament were regarded
as traitors and apostates, defiled by their frequent
intercourse with the heathen, willing tools of the oppressor.
The class thus practically excommunicated furnished some of the
earliest disciples both of the Baptist and of our Lord. The
position of Zacchaeus as a "chief among the publicans," (Luke
19:2) implies a gradation of some kind among the persons thus
employed.
Publius
the chief man--probably the governor-of Melita, who received
and lodged St. Paul and his companions on the occasion of their
being shipwrecked off that island. (Acts 28:7) (A.D.55.)
Pudens
(modest), a Christian friend of Timothy at Rome. (2 Timothy
4:21) (A.D. 84.) According to legend he was the host of St.
Peter and friend of St. Paul. and was martyred under Nero.
Puhites, The
According to (1 Chronicles 2:53) the "Puhites" or "Puthites"
belonged to the families of Kirjath-jearim.
Pul
an Assyrian king, and the first Assyrian monarch mentioned in
Scripture. He made an expedition against Menahem, king of
Israel, about B.C. 770. (2 Kings 15:19)
(lord), a country or nation mentioned in (Isaiah 66:19) It is
spoken of with distant nations, and is supposed by some to
represent the island Philae in Egypt, and by others Libya.
Pulse
(seeds) usually means peas, beans and the seeds that grow in
pods. In the Authorized Version it occurs only in (Lamentations
1:12,16) as the translation of words the literal meaning of
which is "seeds" of any kind. Probably the term denotes
uncooked grain of any kind, as barley wheat, millet, vetches,
etc.
Punishments
The earliest theory of punishment current among mankind is
doubtless the one of simple retaliation, "blood for blood."
Viewed historically, the first case of punishment for crime
mentioned in Scripture, next to the Fall itself, is that of
Cain, the first murderer. That death was regarded as the
fitting punishment for murder appears plain from the remark of
Lamech. (Genesis 4:24) In the post-diluvian code, if we may so
call it, retribution by the hand of man, even in the case of an
offending animal, for blood shed, is clearly laid dawn.
(Genesis 9:5,6) Passing onward to Mosaic times, we find the
sentence of capital punishment, in the case of murder, plainly
laid down in the law. The murderer was to be put to death, even
if he should have taken refuge at God's altar or in a refuge
city, and the same principle was to be carried out even in the
case of an animal. Offences punished with death.-- I. The
following offences also are mentioned in the law as liable to
the punishment of death:
+ Striking, or even reviling, a parent. (Exodus 21:15,17)
+ Blasphemy. (Leviticus 24:14,16,23)
+ Sabbath-breaking. (Exodus 31:14; 35:2; Numbers 15:32-36)
+ Witchcraft, and false pretension to prophecy. (Exodus 22:18;
Leviticus 20:27; 13:5; 18:20)
+ Adultery. (Leviticus 20:10; 22:22)
+ Unchastity. (Leviticus 21:9; 22:21,23)
+ Rape. (22:25)
+ Incestuous and unnatural connections. (Exodus 22:19;
Leviticus 20:11,14,16)
+ Manstealing. (Exodus 21:16; 24:7)
+ Idolatry, actual or virtual, in any shape. (Leviticus 20:2;
13:8,10,15; 17:2-7) see Josh 7:1 ... and Josh 22:20 and Numb
25:8
+ False witness in certain cases. (19:16,19) II. But there is a
large number of offences, some of them included in this list,
which are named in the law as involving the,penalty of
"cutting off from the people. On the meaning of this
expression some controversy has arisen. There are altogether
thirty six or thirty seven cases in the Pentateuch in which
this formula is used. We may perhaps conclude that the
primary meaning of "cutting off" is a sentence of death to be
executed in some cases without remission, but in others
voidable-- (1) by immediate atonement on the offender's part;
(2) by direct interposition of the Almighty i.e., a sentence
of death always "regarded," but not always executed. Kinds of
punishments .--Punishments are twofold, Capital and
Secondary. I. Capital. (A) The following only are prescribed
by the law:
+ Stoning, which was the ordinary mode of execution. (Exodus
17:4; Luke 20:6; John 10:31; Acts 14:5) In the case of
idolatry, and it may be presumed in other cases also, the
witnesses, of whom there were to be at least two, were
required to cast the first stone. (13:9; Acts 7:58)
+ Hanging is mentioned as a distinct punishment. (Numbers 25:4;
2 Samuel 21:6,9)
+ Burning, in pre-Mosaic times, was the punishment for
unchastity. (Genesis 38:24) Under the law it was ordered in
the case of a priest's daughter (Leviticus 21:9)
+ Death by the sword or spear is named in the law, (Exodus
19:13; 32:27; Numbers 25:7) and it occurs frequently in regal
and post-Babylonian times. (1 Kings 2:25,34; 19:1; 2
Chronicles 21:4) etc.
+ Strangling is said by the rabbis to have been regarded as the
most common but least severe of the capital punishments, and
to have been performed by immersing the convict in clay or
mud, and then strangling him by a cloth twisted round the
neck. (B) Besides these ordinary capital punishments, we read
of others, either of foreign introduction or of an irregular
kind. Among the former
+ [1000]Crucifixion is treated elsewhere.
+ Drowning, though not ordered under the law, was practiced at
Rome, and is said by St. Jerome to have been in use among the
Jews.
+ Sawing asunder or crushing beneath iron instruments. (2
Samuel 12:31) and perhaps (Proverbs 20:26; Hebrews 11:37)
+ Pounding in a mortar, or beating to death, is alluded to in
(Proverbs 27:22) but not as a legal punishment, and cases are
described. 2 Macc. 6:28,30.
+ Precipitation, attempted in the case of our Lord at Nazareth,
and carried out in that of captives from the Edomites, and of
St. James, who is said to have been cast from "the pinnacle"
of the temple. Criminals executed by law were burned outside
the city gates, and heaps of stones were flung upon their
graves. (Joshua 7:25,26; 2 Samuel 18:17; Jeremiah 22:19) II.
Of secondary punishments among the Jews, the original
Principles were,
+ Retaliation, "eye for eye," etc. (Exodus 21:24,25)
+ Compensation, Identical (restitution)or analogous payment for
loss of time or of power. (Exodus 21:18-36; Leviticus
24:18-21; 19:21) Slander against a wife's honor was to be
compensated to her parents by a fine of one hundred shekels,
and the traducer himself to be punished with stripes
(22:18,19)
+ Stripes, whose number was not to exceed forty, (25:3) whence
the Jews took care not to exceed thirty-nine. (2 Corinthians
11:24)
+ Scourging with thorns is mentioned (Judges 8:16) The stocks
are mentioned (Jeremiah 20:2) passing through fire, (2 Samuel
12:31) mutilation, (Judges 1:6) 2 Macc. 7:4, and see (2
Samuel 4:12) plucking out hair, (Isaiah 50:6) in later times,
imprisonment and confiscation or exile. (Ezra 7:26; Jeremiah
37:15; 38:6; Acts 4:3; 5:18; 12:4)
Punites, The
the descendants of Pua, or Puvah, the son of Issachar. (Numbers
26:23)
Punon
(darkness) one of the halting-places of the Israelite host
during the last portion of the wandering. (Numbers 33:42,43) By
Eusebius and Jerome, it is identified with Phaeno, which
contained the copper-mines so well known at that period, and
was situated between Petra and Zoar.
Purification
in its legal and technical sense, is applied to the ritual
observances whereby an Israelite was formally absolved from the
taint of uncleanness. The essence of purification, in all
eases, consisted in the use of water, whether by way of
ablution or aspersion; but in the majora delicta of legal
uncleanness, sacrifices of various kinds were added and the
ceremonies throughout bore an expiatory character. Ablution of
the person and of the clothes was required in the cases
mentioned in (Leviticus 15:18; 11:25,40; 15:18,17) In cases of
childbirth the sacrifice was increased to a lamb of the first
year, with a pigeon or turtle-dove. (Leviticus 12:8) The
ceremonies of purification required in cases of contact with a
corpse or a grave are detailed in (Numbers 19:1) ... The
purification of the leper was a yet more formal proceeding, and
indicated the highest pitch of uncleanness. The rites are
described in (Leviticus 14:4-32) The necessity of purification
was extended in the post-Babylonian Period to a variety of
unauthorized cases. Cups and pots and brazen vessels were
washed as a matter of ritual observance. (Mark 7:4) The washing
of the hands before meals was conducted in a formal manner.
(Mark 7:3) What play have been the specific causes of
uncleanness in those who came up to purify themselves before
the Passover, (John 11:55) or in those who had taken upon
themselves the Nazarites' vow, (Acts 21:24,26) we are not
informed. In conclusion it may he observed that the distinctive
feature. In the Mosaic rites of purification is their expiatory
character. The idea of uncleanness was not peculiar to the Jew;
but with all other nations simple ablution sufficed: no
sacrifices were demanded. The Jew alone was taught by the use
of expiatory offerings to discern to its fullest extent the
connection between the outward sign and the inward fount of
impurity.
Purim
(lots), the annual festival instituted to commemorate the
preservation of the Jews in Persia from the massacre with which
they were threatened through the machinations of Haman. (Esther
9:1) ... It was probably called Purim by the Jews in irony.
Their great enemy Haman appears to have been very
superstitious, and much given to casting lots. (Esther 3:7)
They gave the name. Purim, or "Lots," to the commemorative
festival because he had thrown lots to ascertain what day would
be suspicious for him to carry into effect the bloody decree
which the king had issued at his instance. (Esther 9:24) The
festival lasted two days, and was regularly observed on the
14th and 15th of Adar. According to modern custom, as soon as
the stars begin to appear, when the 14th of the month has
commenced, candles are lighted up in token of rejoicing, and
the people assemble in the synagogue. After a short prayer and
thanksgiving, the reading of the book of Esther commences. The
book is written in a peculiar manner, on a roll called "the
Roll" (Megillah). When the reader comes to the name of Haman,
the congregation cry out, "May his name be blotted out," or,
"Let the name of the ungodly perish." When the Megillah is read
through, the whole congregation exclaim, "Cursed be Haman;
blessed be Mordecai; cursed be Zoresh (the wife of Haman);
blessed be Esther; cursed be all idolaters; blessed be all
Israelites, and blessed be Harbonah who hanged Haman." In the
morning service in the synagogue, on the 14th, after the
prayers, the passage is read from the law, (Exodus 17:8-16)
which relates the destruction of the Amalekites, the people of
Agag, (1 Samuel 15:8) the supposed ancestor of Haman. (Esther
3:1) The Megillah is then read again in the same manner. The
14th of Adar, as the very day of the deliverance of the Jews,
is more solemnly kept than the 13th; but when the service in
the synagogue is over, all give themselves up to merry making.
Purosh
(flea). The descendants of Parosh, in number 2172, returned
front Babylon with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:3; Nehemiah 7:8) Another
detachment of 150 males, with Zechariah at their head,
accompanied Ezra. (Ezra 8:3) They assisted in the building of
the well of Jerusalem, (Nehemiah 3:26) and signed the covenant
with Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 10:14) (B.C. before 535-445.)
Purse
a bag for money. The Hebrews, when on a journey, were provided
with a bag, in which they carried their money, (Genesis 42:35;
Proverbs 1:14; 7:20; Isaiah 46:6) and, if they were merchants,
also their weights. (25:13; Micah 6:11) This bag is described
in the New Testament by the terms balantion (bag) (Luke 10:4;
12:33; 22:35,38) and glossokomon (originally the bag in which
musicians carried the mouth-pieces of their Instruments). (John
12:6; 13:29) The girdle also served as a purse. (Matthew 10:9;
Mark 6:8) Ladies wore ornamental purses. (Isaiah 3:24)
Put
(1 Chronicles 1:8; Nahum 3:9) [[1001]Phut, Put]
Puteoli
(sulphurous springs), the great landing-place of travelers to
Italy from the Levant, and the harbor to which the Alexandrian
corn-ships brought their cargoes. (Acts 27:13) The celebrated
bay which is now the Bay of Naples was then called "Sinus
Puteolanus." The city was at the northeastern angle of the bay.
The name Puteoli arose from the strong mineral springs which
are characteristic of the place. It was a favorite
watering-place of the Romans its hot springs being considered
efficacious for cure of various diseases. Here also ships
usually discharged their passengers and cargoes, partly to
avoid doubling the promontory of Circeium and partly because
there was no commodious harbor nearer to Rome. Hence the ship
in which Paul was conveyed from Melita landed the prisoners at
this place, where the apostle stayed a week. (Acts
28:13,14)--Whitney . The associations of Puteoli with
historical personages are very numerous. Scipio sailed from
this place to Spain; Cicero had a villa in the neighborhood;
here Nero planned the murder of his mother; Vespasian gave to
this city peculiar privileges; and here Adrian was buried. In
the fifth century it was ravaged by both Alaric and Genseric,
and it never afterward recovered its former eminence. It is now
a fourth-rate Italian town, still retaining the name of
Pozzuoli . The remains of Puteoli are worthy of mention. Among
them are the aqueduct the reservoirs, portions (probably) of
the baths the great amphitheatre and the building called the
temple of Serapis. No Roman harbor has left as solid a memorial
of itself as this one, at which St. Paul landed in Italy.
Putiel
One of the daughters of Putiel was wife of Eleazar the son of
Aaron, and mother of Phinehas. (Exodus 6:25) (B.C. before
1481.)
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Contents Pygarg
occurs, (14:5) in the list of clean animals as the rendering of
the Heb. dishon, the name apparently of one species of
antelope, though it is by no means easy to identify it.
Pyrrhus
the father of Sopater of Berea. (Acts 20:4) in Revised Version.
(A.D. 55.)